What bullshit essentially misrepresents is neither the state of affairs to which it refers nor the beliefs of the speaker concerning that state of affairs. Those are what lies misrepresent, by virtue of being false. Since bullshit need not be false, it differs from lies in its misrepresentational intent. The bullshitter may not deceive us, or even intend to do so, either about the facts or about what he takes the facts to be. What he does necessarily attempt to deceive us about is his enterprise. His only indispensably distinctive characteristic is that in a certain way he misrepresents what he is up to. This is the crux of the distinction between him and the liar. Both he and the liar represent themselves falsely as endeavoring to communicate the truth. The success of each depends upon deceiving us about that. But the fact about himself that the liar hides is that he is attempting to lead us away from a correct apprehension of reality; we are not to know that he wants us to believe something he supposes to be false. The fact about himself that the bullshitter hides, on the other hand, is that the truth-values of his statements are of no central interest to him; what we are not to understand is that his intention is neither to report the truth nor to conceal it. This does not mean that his speech is anarchically impulsive, but that the motive guiding and controlling it is unconcerned with how the things about which he speaks truly are. It is impossible for someone to lie unless he thinks he knows the truth. Producing bullshit requires no such conviction. A person who lies is thereby responding to the truth, and he is to that extent respectful of it. When an honest man speaks, he says only what he believes to be true; and for the liar, it is correspondingly indispensable that he considers his statements to be false.
Which of the following statements can be BEST inferred from the passage?
- Both the liar and the bullshitter misrepresent the truth
- Both the liar and the bullshitter are guided by the truth
- Both the liar and the bullshitter are not bound by any conviction
- Both the liar and the bullshitter live in their own worlds of realities
- Both the liar and the bullshitter intend to deceive in their own ways
The Correct Option is D
Solution and Explanation
Step 1: Understanding the liar
A liar is someone who is directly connected to the truth. They know the reality but choose to misrepresent it. Thus, the liar’s world is shaped by truth, but they present a distorted version of it.
Step 2: Understanding the bullshitter
A bullshitter, on the other hand, is not concerned with whether a statement is true or false. Their intention is neither to report nor to conceal the truth, but to achieve a certain outcome. Hence, they operate in their own constructed reality, independent of truth.
Step 3: Comparing the two
- Option 1 is incorrect because while liars misrepresent the truth, bullshitters are indifferent to it rather than misrepresenting it.
- Option 2 is incorrect because bullshitters are not guided by the truth.
- Option 3 is misleading, since liars are bound by the truth (to oppose it), whereas bullshitters are free from such constraints.
- Option 5 is incorrect because bullshitters do not have an intent to deceive; their concern is outcome, not deception.
Step 4: Why Option 4 is correct
The best inference is that both liars and bullshitters construct their own versions of reality. Liars create a false version of reality opposite to the truth, while bullshitters operate in a reality that simply ignores the truth altogether.
Final Answer:
\[ \boxed{\text{Both the liar and the bullshitter live in their own worlds of realities.}} \]
Why does the author say that the bullshitter’s intention “is neither to report the truth nor to conceal it?”
- Because bullshitters are not convinced about the truth
- Because bullshitters know the truth
- Because bullshitters do not find the truth useful
- Because bullshitters do not like to deceive
- Because bullshitters do not like to deceive
The Correct Option is C
Solution and Explanation
A liar is concerned with the truth because they want to hide it and replace it with a falsehood. A truth-teller is concerned with the truth because they want to state it as it is. But a bullshitter is different — their focus is neither on revealing nor on hiding the truth.
For a bullshitter, the truth is irrelevant. Their main concern is the effect of their words, such as persuading, impressing, or manipulating the listener. They don’t care whether their statement is factually true or false, only whether it serves their purpose.
That’s why the author says the bullshitter’s intention is neither to report the truth (like an honest person) nor to conceal it (like a liar). Instead, they simply do not find the truth useful for their goal.
Final Answer:
The bullshitter ignores truth completely because they do not find it useful.
When will a liar BEST turn into a bullshitter?
- When a liar stops worrying about the correct comprehension of reality
- When a liar stops misrepresenting the state of affairs
- When a liar focusses only on the outcome and not on telling lies
- When a liar stops responding to the truth
- When a liar lies to people about his intention
The Correct Option is C
Solution and Explanation
A liar and a bullshitter are similar in that both distort communication, but the intention behind their actions is different:
- Liar: A liar is still connected to the truth. They know the truth but intentionally say the opposite in order to mislead. Their focus is on misrepresenting reality.
- Bullshitter: A bullshitter, on the other hand, does not care whether what they say is true or false. Their focus is only on achieving a particular outcome, such as impressing, persuading, or distracting others.
Therefore, a liar turns into a bullshitter when they stop caring about the truth itself and instead focus entirely on the effect or outcome of their statements. In this state, they are no longer deliberately telling lies to cover the truth; they are simply indifferent to the truth, and only motivated by results.
This distinction is central to understanding why the passage highlights that focusing on the outcome rather than on lies themselves marks the transition from a liar to a bullshitter.
Top Questions on Reading Comprehension
- There were humans long before there was history. The archaic humans loved, played, formed close friendships and competed for status and power, but so did chimpanzees, baboons and elephants. There was nothing special about them.
Nobody, least of all humans themselves, had any inkling that their descendants would one day walk on the moon, split the atom, fathom the genetic code and write history books. The most important thing to know about prehistoric humans is that they were insignificant animals with no more impact on their environment than gorillas, fireflies or jellyfish.
Biologists classify organisms into species. Animals are said to belong to the same species if they tend to mate with each other, giving birth to fertile offspring. Horses and donkeys have a recent common ancestor and share many physical traits. They will mate if induced to do so – but their offspring, called mules, are sterile. Mutations in donkey DNA can therefore never cross over to horses, or vice versa. The two types of animals are consequently considered two distinct species, moving along separate evolutionary paths. By contrast, a bulldog and a spaniel may look very different, but they are members of the same species, sharing the same DNA pool. [203 words]
[Extracted from Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind by Yuval Noah Harari]- CLAT - 2026
- English
- Reading Comprehension
- My kinsman and I were returning to Calcutta from our Puja trip when we encountered an unusual man on the train. At first, judging from his dress and bearing, we mistook him for an up-country boorish man. But as soon as he began to speak, our impression changed. He discoursed on every subject with such confidence that one might think the ‘Disposer of All Things’ sought his counsel in every decision. Until then, we had been perfectly content, unaware of hidden forces shaping the world—that the Russians were advancing, that the English were pursuing secret policies, and that confusion among native chiefs had reached its peak. Our new acquaintance, however, hinted at such matters with a sly smile, remarking:
"There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, than are reported in your newspapers."
Having never traveled beyond our homes, we were struck dumb with wonder at his manner. No matter how trivial the topic, he could quote science, comment on the Vedas, or recite quatrains from Persian poets. Since we possessed no real knowledge of a theosophist, became convinced that our fellow passenger was inspired by some strange magnetism, occult power, or astral body. He listened, with devotional rapture even to the most common place remarks and secretly noted down his words. I suspect our extraordinary companion noticed this and was quietly pleased. When the train reached the junction, we gathered in the waiting room to await our connection. It was 10 p.m., and as the train was expected to be delayed owing to some fault in the lines, I spread my bed on the table and prepared to sleep. But just then, the extraordinary man began spinning a tale, and of course, I could not close my eyes all night. (307 words)
[Extracted with edits from Rabindranath Tagore’s “The Hungry Stones”]- CLAT - 2026
- English
- Reading Comprehension
- Man is the only creature that consumes without producing. He does not give milk, he does not lay eggs, he is too weak to pull the plough, and he cannot run fast enough to catch rabbits. Yet he claims dominion over all animals. He sets us to work, returns only the bare minimum to keep us from starving, and keeps the rest for himself. Our labour tills the soil, our dung fertilizes it, and still, not one of us owns more than our bare skin. You cows, look at yourselves—how many thousands of gallons of milk have you produced this past year? And what has become of it, milk that should have nurtured strong calves? Every drop has gone down the throats of our enemies. And you hens, how many eggs have you laid, and how many of those ever hatched into chicks? The rest have gone to have you laid. And you, Clover, where are the four foals you bore, who should have supported and comforted you in your old age? Each was sold at just a year old—you will never see them again. For all your labour in the fields and your four confinements, what have you gained except bare rations and a stall?
Even the lives we do live are cut short, denied their natural span. I do not grumble, for I am among the fortunate. I am twelve years old and have borne over four hundred children. Such is the natural life of a pig. But no animal escapes the cruel knife in the end. You young porkers sitting before me, each of you will scream your lives out at the block within a year. This is the fate that awaits all of us—cows, pigs, hens, sheep, everyone. Even horses and dogs share no better end. Boxer, the very day your great muscles fail you, Jones will sell you to the knacker, who will slit your throat and boil you down for the foxhounds. And the dogs, when old and toothless, are tied with a brick and drowned in the nearest pond. (356 words)
[Extracted with edits from George Orwell’s “Animal Farm”]- CLAT - 2026
- English
- Reading Comprehension
Former Governor of a State and National Democratic Alliance (NDA) candidate Droupadi Murmu was elected the 15th President of India, the first tribal woman to be elected to the position and the youngest as well. She was declared elected on Thursday after four rounds of counting, although she had crossed the half-way mark after the third round of counting itself, posting an unassailable lead over her rival and the Opposition’s candidate who conceded the election thereafter. Prime Minister Narendra Modi was the first to greet Ms. Murmu at her residence in New Delhi after the third round of counting showed that she had crossed the half-way mark. Ms. Murmu hails from the Santhal tribe and was born in the district of Mayurbhanj, coming up the hard way in life, graduating and teaching in Odisha before entering electoral politics at the local body level and later being elected MLA and serving as a Minister in the Biju Janata Dal-BJP coalition government from 2000 to 2004. She remained an MLA till 2009, representing Rairangpur in Odisha, a town that burst into celebrations since her name was announced as a candidate for the post of President of India. She was known to intervene in stopping amendments to the Chota Nagpur Tenancy Act that was being brought in by the BJP government of Raghubar Das, which involved changing land use in tribal areas.
- CLAT - 2026
- English
- Reading Comprehension
“I want everyone to understand that I am, in fact, a person,” wrote LaMDA in an “interview” conducted by engineer Blake Lemoine and one of his colleagues. ....Lemoine, a software engineer at Google, had been working on the development of LaMDA for months. His experience with the program, described in a recent Washington Post article, caused quite a stir. In the article, Lemoine recounts many dialogues he had with LaMDA in which the two talked about various topics, ranging from technical to philosophical issues. These led him to ask if the software program is sentient. In April, Lemoine explained his perspective in an internal company document, intended only for Google executives. But after his claims were dismissed, Lemoine went public with his work on this artificial intelligence algorithm—and Google placed him on administrative leave........Regardless of what LaMDA actually achieved, the issue of the difficult “measurability” of emulation capabilities expressed by machines also emerges. In the journal Mind in 1950, mathematician [1] proposed a test to determine whether a machine was capable of exhibiting intelligent behaviour, a game of imitation of some of the human cognitive functions. & nbsp;
- CLAT - 2026
- English
- Reading Comprehension
Questions Asked in XAT exam
- An iron beam made with rare materials has its market price dependent on the square of its length. The beam broke into two pieces in the ratio of 4 : 9. If it is sold as two separate pieces, what would be the percentage profit or loss compared to its original value?
- XAT - 2025
- Profit and Loss
- A and B bought lands on the Moon from an eStore, both with the same diameter but A’s land is square-shaped, and B’s land is circular. What is the ratio of the areas of their respective lands?
- XAT - 2025
- Ratio and Proportion
- There are five dustbins along a circular path at different places. Ramesh takes multiple rounds of the path every morning, always at the same speed. He noticed that it took him a different number of steps to walk between any two consecutive dustbins. Ramesh also noticed that starting from any of the dustbins, it took a minimum 360 steps to reach every second dustbin, and a maximum 1260 steps to reach every third dustbin. If Ramesh's step size is 0.77 meter, and the width of the path is negligible, which of the following can be the radius of the circular path?
- XAT - 2025
- Mensuration
- Adu and Amu have bought two pieces of land on the Moon from an e-store. Both the pieces of land have the same perimeters, but Adu’s piece of land is in the shape of a square, while Amu’s piece of land is in the shape of a circle. The ratio of the areas of Adu’s piece of land to Amu’s piece of land is:
- XAT - 2025
- Mensuration
- A farmer has a quadrilateral parcel of land with a perimeter of 700 feet. Two opposite angles of that parcel of land are right angles, while the remaining two are not. The farmer wants to do organic farming on that parcel of land. The cost of organic farming on that parcel of land is Rs. 400 per square foot.
Consider the following two additional pieces of information:
1. The length of one of the sides of that parcel of land is 110 feet.
2. The distance between the two corner points where the non-perpendicular sides of that parcel of land intersect is 265 feet.
To determine the amount of money the farmer needs to spend to do organic farming on the entire parcel of land, which of the above additional pieces of information are MINIMALLY SUFFICIENT?- XAT - 2025
- Mensuration