What I call fast political thinking is driven by simplified moral frames. These moral frames give us the sense that those who agree with us have the right answer, while those who disagree are unreasonable, or worse.
Each moral frame sets up an axis of favorable and unfavorable. Progressives use the oppressoroppressed axis. Progressives view most favorably those groups that can be regarded as oppressed or standing with the oppressed, and they view most unfavorably those groups that can be regarded as oppressors. Conservatives use the civilization-barbarism axis. Conservatives view most favorably the institutions that they believe constrain and guide people toward civilized behavior, and they view most unfavorably those people who they see as trying to tear down such institutions. Libertarians use the liberty-coercion axis. Libertarians view most favorably those people who defer to decisions that are made on the basis of personal choice and voluntary agreement, and they view most unfavorably those people who favor government interventions that restrict personal choice.
If you have a dominant axis, I suggest that you try to learn the languages spoken by those who use the other axes. Don’t worry—learning other languages won’t make it easy for others to convert you to their point of view. By the same token, it will not make it easy to convert others to your point of view. However, you may become aware of assumptions your side makes that others might legitimately question.
What learning the other languages can do is enable you to understand how others think about political issues. Instead of resorting to the theory that people with other views are crazy or stupid or evil, you may concede that they have a coherent point of view. In fact, their point of view could be just as coherent as yours. The problem is that those people apply their point of view in circumstances where you are fairly sure that it is not really appropriate. Consider that there may be situations in which one frame describes the problem much better than the others. For example, I believe that the civil rights movement in the United States is best described using the progressive heuristic of the oppressed and the oppressor. In the 1950s and the early 1960s, the people who had the right model were the people who were fighting for black Americans to have true voting rights, equal access to housing, and an end to the Jim Crow laws. The civilization-barbarism axis and the liberty-coercion axis did not provide the best insight into the issue….
Which of the following BEST describes the civilization-barbarism axis?
- The way we are trained to behave affects our peace in life.
- Some people are barbaric and should be restrained from public life.
- It is how you behave, not who you are, that makes you acceptable.
- Government should play a very heavy role in maintaining law and order.
- Every society has to have a harmonious mix of civilized and the barbaric for it to survive.
The Correct Option is C
Approach Solution - 1
The question asks us to identify which statement best describes the civilization-barbarism axis from the provided passage. To solve this, we need to examine how the civilization-barbarism axis is characterized in the context of the passage.
Step 1: Understand the civilization-barbarism axis description.
The passage states that conservatives use the civilization-barbarism axis. This axis views favorably the institutions that constrain and guide people toward civilized behavior. In contrast, it views unfavorably those perceived as trying to tear down such institutions. The key aspect here is behavior and adherence to civil norms as defined by certain institutions.
Step 2: Evaluate the options given.
- The way we are trained to behave affects our peace in life.This statement is more about personal training or upbringing rather than the civilization-barbarism axis.
- Some people are barbaric and should be restrained from public life.This takes a more negative perspective on human behavior but does not align with the broader concept of the civilization-barbarism axis which involves adherence to social norms.
- It is how you behave, not who you are, that makes you acceptable.This focuses on behavior as a key element of acceptance, which correlates well with the civilization-barbarism axis as it emphasizes civilized behavior over inherent traits.
- Government should play a very heavy role in maintaining law and order.While related, this option does not directly address the civilization-barbarism axis, which is more about the role of institutions rather than direct government control.
- Every society has to have a harmonious mix of civilized and the barbaric for it to survive.This option suggests a balance between civilization and barbarism, which is not specifically what the passage discusses regarding the axis.
Step 3: Conclusion.
The option "It is how you behave, not who you are, that makes you acceptable" best aligns with the civilization-barbarism axis. This axis prioritizes civilized behavior guided by institutions, fitting the description that acceptability depends on one's behavior rather than inherent traits.
Therefore, the correct answer is: "It is how you behave, not who you are, that makes you acceptable."
Approach Solution -2
Step 1: Understand the concept of the civilization-barbarism axis.
This axis focuses on the behavior and guidance provided by institutions that constrain individuals and ensure civilized conduct, which is distinct from barbarism.
Step 2: Evaluate the options.
- Option 1: Training impacts peace but doesn't capture the essence of the axis.
- Option 2: Restraining barbaric behavior is important but doesn't fully explain the framework.
- Option 3: Correctly emphasizes behavior over identity, which aligns with the axis's principle.
- Option 4: Highlights law and order but doesn't fully define the civilization-barbarism framework.
- Option 5: While harmony is significant, it doesn't address the key aspect of behavior.
Final Answer: (3)
Which of the following BEST explains the author’s usage of the term moral frames?
- The frames give those who believe in them the right to question others’ behaviours.
- The frames define what the believer believes as right or wrong.
- A frame is a belief and cannot be rationally explained.
- What is right to the believer is wrong to those who do not share that belief.
- It makes easy for the believer to declare others as wrong.
The Correct Option is B
Approach Solution - 1
The question requires an explanation of the author's use of the term 'moral frames' as described in the given passage. Understanding the context and details of the passage is essential to correctly answer this question.
The passage describes 'moral frames' as simplified ways of thinking that categorize people and issues into favorable and unfavorable groups. Each frame allows individuals to view the world in terms of a specific axis that aligns with their values and beliefs, such as the oppressor-oppressed axis for Progressives, the civilization-barbarism axis for Conservatives, and the liberty-coercion axis for Libertarians.
To identify the correct explanation for 'moral frames', we need to consider the following points:
- The simplified belief systems: 'Moral frames' refer to the basic frameworks individuals use to judge right and wrong based on their beliefs. The passage illustrates how different groups use different axes to make these judgments, highlighting that it helps define what individuals perceive as right or wrong within their belief system.
- Distinct definitions of right and wrong: The term 'moral frames' essentially refers to how these frames help the believer determine what is right or wrong according to their perspective, which is specified clearly through the different axes.
Evaluating the options:
- Option 1: "The frames give those who believe in them the right to question others’ behaviors." - While this might seem a consequence, it does not explain the essence of what moral frames are and their defining function.
- Option 2: "The frames define what the believer believes as right or wrong." - This is the best explanation as it aligns with the passage, where moral frames provide a guiding belief system that defines personal notions of right and wrong.
- Option 3: "A frame is a belief and cannot be rationally explained." - The passage mentions exploring assumptions and recognizing the coherence of different frames, thus refuting the idea that frames cannot be rationally explained.
- Option 4: "What is right to the believer is wrong to those who do not share that belief." - While part of the consequence of differing moral frames, it doesn't capture the defining characteristic of moral frames.
- Option 5: "It makes easy for the believer to declare others as wrong." - Similar to Option 1, this describes a consequence, not the defining function or explanation of moral frames.
Thus, the best explanation of the author's usage of the term 'moral frames' is captured in 'The frames define what the believer believes as right or wrong.'
Approach Solution -2
Step 1: Understand moral frames.
Moral frames define a set of beliefs that guide an individual's understanding of right and wrong.
Step 2: Evaluate the options.
- Option 1: Frames provide guidance but do not focus on questioning others.
- Option 2: Correctly identifies frames as defining right and wrong for the believer.
- Option 3: Frames can be rationalized, contrary to the statement.
- Option 4: Addresses conflicts but doesn't fully define moral frames.
- Option 5: Frames simplify judgment but are not limited to declaring others wrong.
Final Answer: (2)
Which of the following can BEST be concluded from the above passage?
- Knowing why you think the way you think, enables you to understand others’ perspectives.
- Most controversial issues in the world can be simplified into three axes.
- The assumptions we hold leads to our dominant axis.
- Issues can be solved by looking at them from the right axis and questioning the assumptions.
- Most problems in the world are because of applying the wrong axis to a particular problem.
The Correct Option is A
Approach Solution - 1
The given passage discusses the concept of "fast political thinking," which involves judging issues through various moral frames or axes. These axes include the oppressor-oppressed axis used by progressives, the civilization-barbarism axis used by conservatives, and the liberty-coercion axis used by libertarians. The passage's main argument emphasizes the importance of understanding different perspectives by learning the moral 'languages' used by others. Doing so helps acknowledge the coherence in differing viewpoints.
- The passage emphasizes understanding others' perspectives by learning their moral languages. This suggests developing empathy and recognizing that different viewpoints can be coherent and legitimate.
- Let's analyze the provided options:
- Option 1: "Knowing why you think the way you think, enables you to understand others’ perspectives." - This aligns with the passage's main idea that learning other perspectives aids in understanding and reduces bias, making it the best conclusion.
- Option 2: "Most controversial issues in the world can be simplified into three axes." - While the passage mentions three axes, it does not argue that all issues are simplified into these, so this is not the best conclusion.
- Option 3: "The assumptions we hold leads to our dominant axis." - Though implied, this isn't the passage's central thesis or conclusion that can be drawn.
- Option 4: "Issues can be solved by looking at them from the right axis and questioning the assumptions." - The passage suggests this for specific situations, but does not propose it as a universal solution.
- Option 5: "Most problems in the world are because of applying the wrong axis to a particular problem." - This overgeneralizes the passage's discussion by attributing problems' cause due to improper axis application.
- Thus, the best conclusion from the passage is captured in Option 1: "Knowing why you think the way you think, enables you to understand others’ perspectives."
Approach Solution -2
Step 1: Analyze the author's argument.
The author emphasizes understanding different moral frames to comprehend how others perceive political issues and make decisions.
Step 2: Evaluate the options.
- Option 1: Correctly captures the core message of understanding others' perspectives.
- Option 2: Axes simplify issues but aren't the passage's main conclusion.
- Option 3: Highlights assumptions but doesn't provide the best conclusion.
- Option 4: Reflects the application of axes but misses the broader understanding.
- Option 5: Overemphasizes the role of axes in causing problems.
Final Answer: (1)
Top Questions on Reading Comprehension
- The advent of social media has dramatically transformed the way individuals consume and share information. In earlier times, people largely depended on newspapers, radio, or television as their primary sources of knowledge about the world. These were institutions that followed established editorial practices and fact-checking processes. With the rise of digital platforms, however, the traditional ‘gatekeepers’ of information have been bypassed. Today, anyone with internet access can create content, express an opinion, or broadcast an idea to a global audience within seconds.
This shift has certainly democratized access and given voice to communities and individuals who were often ignored by mainstream media. Yet, this democratization comes with challenges. Alongside genuine voices, social media has also amplified misinformation, rumours, and half-truths. Unlike traditional journalism, where accountability and verification are built into the system, social media thrives on speed, virality, and emotion. A misleading headline, a misinterpreted statistic, or even a doctored image can travel across the world before fact-checkers have the chance to intervene.
The consequences of such unchecked information can be serious, ranging from the spread of fear and panic to the manipulation of public opinion. The impact of this transformation extends beyond individual users to institutions and democracies. Political campaigns, corporate branding, and even social movements are now shaped by algorithms that decide what people see and when they see it. These algorithms prioritize engagement, often promoting content that provokes stronger emotional reactions rather than balanced analysis.
As a result, echo chambers form, online spaces where people are repeatedly exposed to opinions that mirror their own, reinforcing biases and reducing openness to differing perspectives. This has contributed to increasing polarization in societies across the world. Moreover, the competition for attention has blurred the line between information and entertainment, leading to the rise of sensationalism even in serious public discourse. The credibility of expertise too has been undermined, as opinions from unverified sources are often placed on the same footing as evidence-based knowledge.
In response, several governments and technology companies are exploring ways to promote digital literacy, enhance transparency in algorithms, and strengthen fact-checking collaborations. Ultimately, the challenge lies in balancing the openness of digital spaces with mechanisms that ensure responsibility and trustworthiness in public communication.- AILET BALLB (Hons.) - 2026
- English
- Reading Comprehension
- I have still to be brother to a Prince, though I once came near to kinship with what might have been a veritable King, and was promised the reversion of a Kingdom, army, law-courts, revenue, and policy, all complete. But, today, I greatly fear that my King is dead, and if I want a crown I must go and hunt it for myself. The beginning of everything was in a railway train upon the road to Mhow from Ajmir. There had been a deficit in the Budget, which necessitated travelling, not Second class, which is only half as dear as First class, but by Intermediate, which is very awful indeed. There are no cushions in the Intermediate class, and the population is either Intermediate, which is Eurasian, or native, which for a long night journey is nasty; or Loafer, which is amusing though intoxicated. Intermediates do not patronize refreshment rooms. They carry their food in bundles and pots, and buy sweets from the native sweet meat sellers, and drink the roadside water. That is why in the hot weather Intermediates are taken out of the carriages dead, and in all weathers are most properly looked down upon.
My particular Intermediate happened to be empty till I reached Nasirabad, when a huge gentleman in shirt sleeves entered, and following the custom of Intermediates, passed the time of day. He was a wanderer and a vagabond like myself, but with an educated taste for alcohol. He told daring tales of things he had seen and done, of out-of-the-way corners of the Empire into which he had penetrated, and of adventures in which he risked his life for a few days’ food. “If India was filled with men like you and me, not knowing more than the crows where they’d get their next day’s rations, it isn’t seventy millions of revenue the land would be paying, it’s seven hundred millions,” said he; and as I looked at his mouth and chin I was disposed to agree with him.
We talked politics, the politics of Loaferdom that sees things from the underside where the lath and plaster is not smoothed off, and we talked postal arrangements because my friend wanted to send a telegram back from the next station to Ajmir, which is the turning off place from the Bombay to the Mhow line as you travel westward. He had the air of one who had seen strange countries and stranger men, yet bore himself without vanity. There was a restless light in his eyes, the sort that belongs to men who have lived too long without a fixed purpose. When he spoke of the Empire, it was not with loyalty nor with bitterness, but with the detached amusement of one who has played his part and lost interest in the game. His laughter came easily, though it seemed to echo from some remembered hardship. It struck me then that his stories were less of adventure than of survival.- AILET BALLB (Hons.) - 2026
- English
- Reading Comprehension
Democracy, often hailed as the most equitable form of governance, is a system where power ultimately rests in the hands of the people. The word derives from the Greek words ”demos” meaning people and ”kratos” meaning power or rule. Democracy aims to provide equal political participation and protect the individual freedoms of all citizens. However, while the idea of democracy is simple, its practice is frequently complex and fraught with challenges. At its core, democracy functions on the principle of majority rule, yet it simultaneously guarantees the protection of minority rights.
This balance ensures that while the majority has the power to make decisions through voting, the fundamental rights of minorities are not trampled upon. Such a system requires consistent vigilance and respect for the rule of law. Without these, democracies can devolve into majoritarian tyranny or authoritarianism. The practice of democracy is not merely limited to voting in elections. It encompasses freedom of speech, an independent judiciary, free press, and protection of individual rights. These elements together create a political environment where citizens can express dissent, hold leaders accountable, and participate actively in decision-making. When any component is weakened, the democratic process becomes vulnerable.
In recent times, democratic societies worldwide have grappled with new challenges. The rise of misinformation and fake news has eroded public trust in institutions and polarized societies. Social media platforms, meant to facilitate communication, have sometimes amplified divisive narratives and falsehoods. This has resulted in voter manipulation and a growing skepticism toward democratic processes. Literacy in media and critical thinking is increasingly vital to safeguard democracy from such threats. Economic inequality poses another significant challenge. While democracy promises equal rights politically, vast disparities in wealth and opportunity undermine this ideal.
This phenomenon raises questions about whether democracy is achievable without addressing socioeconomic inequalities. Furthermore, the involvement of citizens is crucial. Democracy requires that people are informed, engaged, and willing to participate beyond casting votes. Civic education and awareness campaigns play an essential role in nurturing responsible citizenship. Apathy or disengagement weakens the democratic fabric, opening avenues for corruption and other dangers to the system. In conclusion, democracy thrives on the collective responsibility of governments and citizens to protect its pillars and ensure inclusive, fair governance.- AILET BALLB (Hons.) - 2026
- English
- Reading Comprehension
The Rule of Law
by Tom BinghamJustice: What’s the Right Thing to Do?
by Michael J. SandelLetters to a Law Student
by Nicholas J. McBrideIn The Rule of Law, former Lord Chief Justice Tom Bingham explores how the principle of legality underpins modern democratic life. He defines the rule of law as more than just adherence to formal rules; it is the assurance that power is exercised within clear, fair, and publicly known boundaries.
Bingham distills the concept into eight principles, including equality before the law, access to justice, and respect for fundamental human rights. Drawing on cases and historical examples, he warns that national security and administrative efficiency must never override the rights of individuals.
The book bridges legal philosophy and practice, arguing that law must be both predictable and humane. For Bingham, the rule of law represents a moral ideal, one that sustains public trust in justice and curbs arbitrary governance.Michael Sandel’s Justice: What’s the Right Thing to Do? examines moral reasoning in law and politics. Through examples like price gouging, affirmative action, and taxation, Sandel invites readers to explore competing notions of fairness.
He engages with philosophical traditions such as utilitarianism, libertarianism, and Rawlsian egalitarianism, showing that questions of justice cannot be separated from questions of virtue and the common good.
Sandel rejects the idea of a morally “neutral” legal system, arguing that public deliberation about values is essential to democracy. Ultimately, he argues that a just society is one that cultivates civic responsibility, not merely individual rights.Nicholas McBride’s Letters to a Law Student is a practical and reflective guide for aspiring lawyers. Written as a series of letters to a student beginning law school, it explores what legal study truly involves.
This includes mastering case analysis, understanding precedents, and developing critical reasoning. McBride distinguishes between knowing the law and thinking like a lawyer, the latter requiring analytical discipline and ethical awareness.
He emphasizes that good lawyers combine intellectual rigor with moral judgment and clarity of expression. Beyond academic success, the book urges students to reflect on law’s purpose, balancing order, justice, and compassion in human affairs.- AILET BALLB (Hons.) - 2026
- English
- Reading Comprehension
Urban gardening has become increasingly popular as a means to address food security, sustainability, and mental well-being in cities. By growing their own fruits, vegetables, and herbs, individuals can reduce their reliance on commercial supply chains that contribute to extensive transportation, energy consumption, and synthetic chemical use. In addition to providing fresh, nutritious food, urban gardening also contributes to environmental sustainability by mitigating urban heat island effects, improving air quality, and managing water runoff. Furthermore, it offers psychological benefits, including reduced stress, improved mood, and a sense of accomplishment. Despite its many benefits, urban gardening faces challenges like space limitations, poor soil quality, and inadequate sunlight, which gardeners overcome using innovative techniques such as vertical farming and hydroponics.
- AILET BALLB (Hons.) - 2026
- English
- Reading Comprehension
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- XAT - 2025
- Trigonometry