NOT everything looks lovelier the longer and closer its inspection. But Saturn does. It is gorgeous through Earthly telescopes. However, the 13 years of close observation provided by Cassini, an American spacecraft, showed the planet, its moons and its remarkable rings off better and better, revealing finer structures, striking novelties and greater drama. . . .
By and large the big things in the solar system — planets and moons — are thought of as having been around since the beginning. The suggestion that rings and moons are new is, though, made even more interesting by the fact that one of those moons, Enceladus, is widely considered the most promising site in the solar system on which to look for alien life. If Enceladus is both young and bears life, that life must have come into being quickly. This is also believed to have been the case on Earth. Were it true on Enceladus, that would encourage the idea that life evolves easily when conditions are right.
One reason for thinking Saturn's rings are young is that they are bright. The solar system is suffused with comet dust, and comet dust is dark. Leaving Saturn's ring system which Cassini has shown to be more than 90% water ice out in such a mist is like leaving laundry hanging on a line downwind from a smokestack; it will get dirty. The lighter the rings are, the faster this will happen, for the less mass they contain, the less celestial pollution they can absorb before they start to discolour... Jeff Cuzzi, a scientist at America’s space agency, NASA, who helped run Cassini, told the Lunar and Planetary Science Conference in Houston that combining the mass estimates with Cassini's measurements of the density of comet dust near Saturn suggests the rings are no older than the first dinosaurs, nor younger than the last of them; that is, they are somewhere between 200 million and 70 million years old.
That timing fits well with a theory put forward in 2016, by Matija Cuk of the SETI Institute, in California and his colleagues. They suggest that at around the same time as the rings came into being an old set of moons orbiting Saturn destroyed themselves, and from their remains emerged not only the rings but also the planet’s current suite of inner moons — Rhea, Dione, Tethys, Enceladus and Mimas. . . .
Dr. Cuk and his colleagues used computer simulations of Saturn’s moons’ orbits as a sort of time machine. Looking at the rate at which tidal friction is causing these orbits to lengthen they extrapolated backwards to find out what those orbits would have looked like in the past. They discovered that about 100m years ago the orbits of two of them, Tethys and Dione, would have interacted in a way that left the planes in which they orbit markedly tilted. But their orbits are untilted. The obvious, if unsettling, conclusion was that this interaction never happened — and thus that at the time when it should have happened, Dione and Tethys were simply not there. They must have come into being later.
Data provided by Cassini challenged the assumption that:
- Saturn’s ring system is composed mostly of water ice.
there was life on earth when Saturn’s rings were being formed.
new celestial bodies can form from the destruction of old celestial bodies.
- all big things in the solar system have been around since the beginning.
The Correct Option is D
Solution and Explanation
The provided data from Cassini effectively contradicts the long-held assumption that all significant celestial bodies in the solar system, such as planets and moons, have been in existence since the solar system's formation. Cassini's observations led to the understanding that Saturn's rings are relatively young, estimated to be between 70 million and 200 million years old. This challenges the presumption that all large structures in the solar system are as ancient as its inception.
Supporting this, Cassini's findings reveal that Saturn's rings, composed mostly of over 90% water ice, appear bright due to their youth, as they have not yet darkened from space dust accumulation. Furthermore, studies by Matija Cuk et al. suggested the recent formation of Saturn’s rings and current moons like Rhea, Dione, Tethys, Enceladus, and Mimas due to the destruction of a previous set of moons. These insights demonstrate that new celestial bodies can arise from the disintegration of older ones, underscoring the ongoing dynamism within our solar system and refuting the idea that all large celestial structures have existed unchanged since the beginning.
| Cassini's Key Findings |
| Saturn's rings are relatively young. |
| Rings are over 90% water ice and still bright. |
| Evidence of new moons forming from old ones. |
| Planetary processes are ongoing and dynamic. |
Hence, the most directly challenged assumption by Cassini's data is that "all big things in the solar system have been around since the beginning."
The main objective of the passage is to:
- establish that Saturn’s rings and inner moons have been around since the beginning of time.
- demonstrate how the orbital patterns of Saturn’s rings and moons change over time.
- highlight the beauty, finer structures and celestial drama of Saturn’s rings and moons.
- provide evidence that Saturn’s rings and moons are recent creations.
The Correct Option is A
Solution and Explanation
To determine the main objective of the passage, we need to analyze the content's primary themes and implied conclusions. The passage discusses observations and scientific conclusions regarding Saturn's rings and moons based on data from the Cassini spacecraft. Key elements include:
The passage initially praises the beauty and complexity revealed by Cassini’s observations of Saturn, its rings, and its moons.
A hypothesis suggests Saturn’s rings and moons may be recent, due to their brightness and historical estimates of mass absorption and the density of comet dust indicating a younger age for these celestial objects.
The passage explains a theory by Matija Cuk and his colleagues, using computer simulations, suggesting Saturn’s current inner moons are relatively young, formed from the remnants of older moons approximately 100 million years ago.
The main objective of the passage aligns with the process of establishing that Saturn’s rings and inner moons are relatively young formations. Although there is mention of theories about their potential youth, the broader context emphasizes how observational data has shaped new theories about their existence, challenging the notion they have been around since the solar system's beginning. Therefore, the correct answer to the passage’s main objective is:
Based on information provided in the passage, we can infer that, in addition to water ice, Saturn’s rings might also have small amounts of:
- methane and rock particles.
- helium and methane.
- helium and comet dust.
- rock particles and comet dust.
The Correct Option is D
Solution and Explanation
The phrase “leaving laundry hanging on a line downwind from a smokestack” is used to explain how the ringed planet's:
- atmosphere absorbs comet dust.
- rings discolour and darken over time.
- rings lose mass over time.
- moons create a gap between the rings.
The Correct Option is B
Solution and Explanation
Based on information provided in the passage, we can conclude all of the following EXCEPT:
- Saturn’s lighter rings discolour faster than rings with greater mass.
- Saturn’s rings were created from the remains of older moons.
- none of Saturn’s moons ever had suitable conditions for life to evolve.
- Thethys and Dione are less than 100 million years old.
The Correct Option is C
Solution and Explanation
- Option 1: "Saturn’s lighter rings discolour faster than rings with greater mass."
- This conclusion can be drawn from the passage, as it states, "The lighter the rings are, the faster this will happen, for the less mass they contain, the less celestial pollution they can absorb before they start to discolour."
- Option 2: "Saturn’s rings were created from the remains of older moons."
- The passage supports this by mentioning, "They suggest that at around the same time as the rings came into being an old set of moons orbiting Saturn destroyed themselves, and from their remains emerged not only the rings but also the planet’s current suite of inner moons."
- Option 3: "none of Saturn’s moons ever had suitable conditions for life to evolve."
- The passage implies a contrary idea, stating that Enceladus is "widely considered the most promising site in the solar system on which to look for alien life." Thus, this option is not supported by the passage.
- Option 4: "Thethys and Dione are less than 100 million years old."
- The passage suggests through simulations that, "at the time when it should have happened, Dione and Tethys were simply not there," implying they are less than 100 million years old.
Top Questions on Reading Comprehension
- There were humans long before there was history. The archaic humans loved, played, formed close friendships and competed for status and power, but so did chimpanzees, baboons and elephants. There was nothing special about them.
Nobody, least of all humans themselves, had any inkling that their descendants would one day walk on the moon, split the atom, fathom the genetic code and write history books. The most important thing to know about prehistoric humans is that they were insignificant animals with no more impact on their environment than gorillas, fireflies or jellyfish.
Biologists classify organisms into species. Animals are said to belong to the same species if they tend to mate with each other, giving birth to fertile offspring. Horses and donkeys have a recent common ancestor and share many physical traits. They will mate if induced to do so – but their offspring, called mules, are sterile. Mutations in donkey DNA can therefore never cross over to horses, or vice versa. The two types of animals are consequently considered two distinct species, moving along separate evolutionary paths. By contrast, a bulldog and a spaniel may look very different, but they are members of the same species, sharing the same DNA pool. [203 words]
[Extracted from Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind by Yuval Noah Harari]- CLAT - 2026
- English
- Reading Comprehension
- My kinsman and I were returning to Calcutta from our Puja trip when we encountered an unusual man on the train. At first, judging from his dress and bearing, we mistook him for an up-country boorish man. But as soon as he began to speak, our impression changed. He discoursed on every subject with such confidence that one might think the ‘Disposer of All Things’ sought his counsel in every decision. Until then, we had been perfectly content, unaware of hidden forces shaping the world—that the Russians were advancing, that the English were pursuing secret policies, and that confusion among native chiefs had reached its peak. Our new acquaintance, however, hinted at such matters with a sly smile, remarking:
"There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, than are reported in your newspapers."
Having never traveled beyond our homes, we were struck dumb with wonder at his manner. No matter how trivial the topic, he could quote science, comment on the Vedas, or recite quatrains from Persian poets. Since we possessed no real knowledge of a theosophist, became convinced that our fellow passenger was inspired by some strange magnetism, occult power, or astral body. He listened, with devotional rapture even to the most common place remarks and secretly noted down his words. I suspect our extraordinary companion noticed this and was quietly pleased. When the train reached the junction, we gathered in the waiting room to await our connection. It was 10 p.m., and as the train was expected to be delayed owing to some fault in the lines, I spread my bed on the table and prepared to sleep. But just then, the extraordinary man began spinning a tale, and of course, I could not close my eyes all night. (307 words)
[Extracted with edits from Rabindranath Tagore’s “The Hungry Stones”]- CLAT - 2026
- English
- Reading Comprehension
- Man is the only creature that consumes without producing. He does not give milk, he does not lay eggs, he is too weak to pull the plough, and he cannot run fast enough to catch rabbits. Yet he claims dominion over all animals. He sets us to work, returns only the bare minimum to keep us from starving, and keeps the rest for himself. Our labour tills the soil, our dung fertilizes it, and still, not one of us owns more than our bare skin. You cows, look at yourselves—how many thousands of gallons of milk have you produced this past year? And what has become of it, milk that should have nurtured strong calves? Every drop has gone down the throats of our enemies. And you hens, how many eggs have you laid, and how many of those ever hatched into chicks? The rest have gone to have you laid. And you, Clover, where are the four foals you bore, who should have supported and comforted you in your old age? Each was sold at just a year old—you will never see them again. For all your labour in the fields and your four confinements, what have you gained except bare rations and a stall?
Even the lives we do live are cut short, denied their natural span. I do not grumble, for I am among the fortunate. I am twelve years old and have borne over four hundred children. Such is the natural life of a pig. But no animal escapes the cruel knife in the end. You young porkers sitting before me, each of you will scream your lives out at the block within a year. This is the fate that awaits all of us—cows, pigs, hens, sheep, everyone. Even horses and dogs share no better end. Boxer, the very day your great muscles fail you, Jones will sell you to the knacker, who will slit your throat and boil you down for the foxhounds. And the dogs, when old and toothless, are tied with a brick and drowned in the nearest pond. (356 words)
[Extracted with edits from George Orwell’s “Animal Farm”]- CLAT - 2026
- English
- Reading Comprehension
Former Governor of a State and National Democratic Alliance (NDA) candidate Droupadi Murmu was elected the 15th President of India, the first tribal woman to be elected to the position and the youngest as well. She was declared elected on Thursday after four rounds of counting, although she had crossed the half-way mark after the third round of counting itself, posting an unassailable lead over her rival and the Opposition’s candidate who conceded the election thereafter. Prime Minister Narendra Modi was the first to greet Ms. Murmu at her residence in New Delhi after the third round of counting showed that she had crossed the half-way mark. Ms. Murmu hails from the Santhal tribe and was born in the district of Mayurbhanj, coming up the hard way in life, graduating and teaching in Odisha before entering electoral politics at the local body level and later being elected MLA and serving as a Minister in the Biju Janata Dal-BJP coalition government from 2000 to 2004. She remained an MLA till 2009, representing Rairangpur in Odisha, a town that burst into celebrations since her name was announced as a candidate for the post of President of India. She was known to intervene in stopping amendments to the Chota Nagpur Tenancy Act that was being brought in by the BJP government of Raghubar Das, which involved changing land use in tribal areas.
- CLAT - 2026
- English
- Reading Comprehension
“I want everyone to understand that I am, in fact, a person,” wrote LaMDA in an “interview” conducted by engineer Blake Lemoine and one of his colleagues. ....Lemoine, a software engineer at Google, had been working on the development of LaMDA for months. His experience with the program, described in a recent Washington Post article, caused quite a stir. In the article, Lemoine recounts many dialogues he had with LaMDA in which the two talked about various topics, ranging from technical to philosophical issues. These led him to ask if the software program is sentient. In April, Lemoine explained his perspective in an internal company document, intended only for Google executives. But after his claims were dismissed, Lemoine went public with his work on this artificial intelligence algorithm—and Google placed him on administrative leave........Regardless of what LaMDA actually achieved, the issue of the difficult “measurability” of emulation capabilities expressed by machines also emerges. In the journal Mind in 1950, mathematician [1] proposed a test to determine whether a machine was capable of exhibiting intelligent behaviour, a game of imitation of some of the human cognitive functions. & nbsp;
- CLAT - 2026
- English
- Reading Comprehension
Questions Asked in CAT exam
- A round table has seven chairs around it. The chairs are numbered 1 through 7 in a clockwise direction. Four friends, Aslam (A), Bashir (B), Chhavi (C), and Davies (D), sit on four of the chairs. In the starting position, Aslam and Chhavi are sitting next to each other, while for Bashir as well as Davies, there are empty chairs on either side of the chairs they are sitting on.
The friends take turns moving either clockwise or counterclockwise from their chair. The friend who has to move in a turn occupies the first empty chair in whichever direction they choose to move. Aslam moves first (Turn 1), followed by Bashir, Chhavi, and Davies (Turns 2, 3, and 4, respectively). Then Aslam moves again followed by Bashir, and Chhavi (Turns 5, 6, and 7, respectively).
The following information is known: 1. The four friends occupy adjacent chairs only at the end of Turn 2 and Turn 6. 2. Davies occupies Chair 2 after Turn 1 and Chair 4 after Turn 5, and Chhavi occupies Chair 7 after Turn 2.- CAT - 2025
- Conclusion
At InnovateX, six employees, Asha, Bunty, Chintu, Dolly, Eklavya, and Falguni, were split into two groups of three each: Elite led by Manager Kuku, and Novice led by Manager Lalu. At the end of each quarter, Kuku and Lalu handed out ratings to all members in their respective groups. In each group, each employee received a distinct integer rating from 1 to 3. & nbsp;
The score for an employee at the end of a quarter is defined as their cumulative rating from the beginning of the year. At the end of each quarter the employee in Novice with the highest score was promoted to Elite, and the employee in Elite with the minimum score was demoted to Novice. If there was a tie in scores, the employee with a higher rating in the latest quarter was ranked higher.
1. Asha, Bunty, and Chintu were in Elite at the beginning of Quarter 1. All of them were in Novice at the beginning of Quarter 4.
2. Dolly and Falguni were the only employees who got the same rating across all the quarters.
3. The following is known about ratings given by Lalu (Novice manager):
– Bunty received a rating of 1 in Quarter 2. & nbsp;
– Asha and Dolly received ratings of 1 and 2, respectively, in Quarter 3.- CAT - 2025
- Conclusion
Five countries engage in trade with each other. Each country levies import tariffs on the other countries. The import tariff levied by Country X on Country Y is calculated by multiplying the corresponding tariff percentage with the total imports of Country X from Country Y. The radar chart below depicts different import tariff percentages charged by each of the five countries on the others. For example, US (the blue line in the chart) charges 20%, 40%, 30%, and 30% import tariff percentages on imports from France, India, Japan, and UK, respectively. The bar chart depicts the import tariffs levied by each county on other countries. For example, US charged import tariff of 3 billion USD on UK.
Assume that imports from one country to an other equals the exports from the latter to the former. The trade surplus of Country X with Country Y is defined as follows. Trade surplus = Exports from Country X to Country Y Imports to Country X from Country Y. A negative trade surplus is called trade deficit.- CAT - 2025
- Data comparison from Table
A train travels from Station A to Station E, passing through stations B, C, and D, in that order. The train has a seating capacity of 200. A ticket may be booked from any station to any other station ahead on the route, but not to any earlier station. A ticket from one station to another reserves one seat on every intermediate segment of the route. For example, a ticket from B to E reserves a seat in the intermediate segments B– C, C– D, and D–E. The occupancy factor for a segment is the total number of seats reserved in the segment as a percentage of the seating capacity. The total number of seats reserved for any segment cannot exceed 200. The following information is known. 1. Segment C– D had an occupancy factor of 952. Exactly 40 tickets were booked from B to C and 30 tickets were booked from B to E. 3. Among the seats reserved on segment D– E, exactly four-sevenths were from stations before C. 4. The number of tickets booked from A to C was equal to that booked from A to E, and it was higher than that from B to E. 5. No tickets were booked from A to B, from B to D and from D to E. 6. The number of tickets booked for any segment was a multiple of 10.
- CAT - 2025
- Data Analysis
- Alia, Badal, Clive, Dilshan, and Ehsaan played a game in which each asks a unique question to all the others and they respond by tapping their feet, either once or twice or thrice. One tap means “Yes”, two taps mean “No”, and three taps mean “Maybe”. A total of 40 taps were heard across the five questions. Each question received at least one “Yes”, one “No”, and one “Maybe.” The following information is known. 1. Alia tapped a total of 6 times and received 9 taps to her question. She responded “Yes” to the questions asked by both Clive and Dilshan. 2. Dilshan and Ehsaan tapped a total of 11 and 9 times respectively. Dilshan responded “No” to Badal. 3. Badal, Dilshan, and Ehsaan received equal number of taps to their respective questions. 4. No one responded “Yes” more than twice. 5. No one’s answer to Alia’s question matched the answer that Alia gave to that person’s question. This was also true for Ehsaan. 6. Clive tapped more times in total than Badal.
- CAT - 2025
- Data Analysis