How can we know what someone else is thinking or feeling, let alone prove it in court? In his 1863 book, A General View of the Criminal Law of England, James Fitzjames Stephen, among the most celebrated legal thinkers of his generation, was of the opinion that the assessment of a person’s mental state was an inference made with “little consciousness.” In a criminal case, jurors, doctors, and lawyers could watch defendants—scrutinizing clothing, mannerisms, tone of voice— but the best they could hope for were clues. . . . Rounding these clues up to a judgment about a defendant’s guilt, or a defendant’s life, was an act of empathy and imagination. . . . The closer the resemblance between defendants and their judges, the easier it was to overlook the gap that inference filled. Conversely, when a defendant struck officials as unlike themselves, whether by dint of disease, gender, confession, or race, the precariousness of judgments about mental state was exposed. In the nineteenth century, physicians who specialized in the study of madness and the care of the insane held themselves out as experts in the new field of mental science. Often called alienists or mad doctors, they were the predecessors of modern psychiatrists, neurologists, and psychologists. . . . The opinions of family and neighbors had once been sufficient to sift the sane from the insane, but a growing belief that insanity was a subtle condition that required expert, medical diagnosis pushed physicians into the witness box. . . . Lawyers for both prosecution and defense began to recruit alienists to assess defendants’ sanity and to testify to it in court.
Irresponsibility and insanity were not identical, however. Criminal responsibility was a legal concept and not, fundamentally, a medical one. Stephen explained: “The question ‘What are the mental elements of responsibility?’ is, and must be, a legal question. It cannot be anything else, for the meaning of responsibility is liability to punishment.” . . . Nonetheless, medical and legal accounts of what it meant to be mentally sound became entangled and mutually referential throughout the nineteenth century. Lawyers relied on medical knowledge to inform their opinions and arguments about the sanity of their clients. Doctors commented on the legal responsibility of their patients. Ultimately, the fields of criminal law and mental science were both invested in constructing an image of the broken and damaged psyche that could be contrasted with the whole and healthy one. This shared interest, and the shared space of the criminal courtroom, made it nearly impossible to consider responsibility without medicine, or insanity without law. . . .
Physicians and lawyers shared more than just concern for the mind. Class, race, and gender bound these middle-class, white, professional men together, as did family ties, patriotism, Protestantism, business ventures, the alumni networks of elite schools and universities, and structures of political patronage. But for all their affinities, men of medicine and law were divided by contests over the borders of criminal responsibility, as much within each profession as between them. Alienists steadily pushed the boundaries of their field, developing increasingly complex and capacious definitions of insanity. Eccentricity and aggression came to be classified as symptoms of mental disease, at least by some.
The last paragraph of the passage refers to “middle-class, white, professional men”. Which one of the following qualities best describes the connection among them?
Show Hint
- The borders of criminal responsibility.
- The opinions of family and neighbours.
- Eccentricity and aggression.
- Empathy and imagination.
The Correct Option is A
Solution and Explanation
Step 1: Identify what the paragraph says binds these men together. & nbsp;
The passage states clearly that physicians and lawyers were connected through:
“Class, race, and gender bound these middle-class, white, professional men together, as did family ties, patriotism, Protestantism, business ventures, the alumni networks of elite schools and universities, and structures of political patronage.”
Thus, they are bound together by shared social identity and social networks.
Step 2: Evaluate the given answer options.
- Option (1): “The borders of criminal responsibility” — The passage says they were divided by contests over these borders, not united by them.
- Option (2): “The opinions of family and neighbours” — This refers to the earlier method of judging sanity, not what binds these men.
- Option (3): “Eccentricity and aggression” — These are traits some alienists labelled as insanity, not something shared by these professionals.
- Option (4): “Empathy and imagination” — These were traits needed for jurors to infer mental states, not what linked physicians and lawyers.
Step 3: Conclusion.
None of the choices accurately capture the qualities binding these men together.
If forced to choose, option (1) is the least incorrect because it refers to a key theme in the paragraph, although it actually reflects what divided them rather than what connected them.
According to the passage, who or what was an “alienist”?
Show Hint
- Professionals who pushed the boundaries of their fields till they became unrecognisable in the nineteenth century.
- Physicians who specialised in the study of madness and the care of the insane in the nineteenth century.
- Physicians and lawyers who were responsible for the condition of immigrants or ‘aliens’ in the nineteenth century.
- Physicians and lawyers who were responsible for examining accounts of extraterrestrials or ‘aliens’ in the nineteenth century.
The Correct Option is B
Solution and Explanation
Step 1: Locate the definition in the passage. & nbsp;
The passage unambiguously states:
“Physicians who specialized in the study of madness and the care of the insane held themselves out as experts in the new field of mental science. Often called alienists or mad doctors, they were the predecessors of modern psychiatrists, neurologists, and psychologists.”
Step 2: Match this with the options.
- Option (2): Precisely matches the passage: alienists were physicians specializing in treating and studying insanity.
- Option (1): Misrepresents the idea: alienists expanded definitions of insanity, but this does not define the term.
- Option (3): Incorrectly treats “alienist” as related to immigrants; the passage never implies this.
- Option (4): Refers to extraterrestrials and is irrelevant.
Conclusion:
Thus, the correct answer is clearly Option (2).
Study the following sets of concepts and identify the set that is conceptually closest to the concerns and arguments of the passage.
Show Hint
- Empathy, Prosecution, Knowledge, Business.
- Judgement, Belief, Accounts, Patronage.
- Assessment, Empathy, Prosecution, Patriotism.
- Judgement, Insanity, Punishment, Responsibility.
The Correct Option is D
Solution and Explanation
Step 1: Identify the core themes of the passage. & nbsp;
The passage discusses:
- how courts judge mental states (judgement),
- the rise of alienists diagnosing insanity,
- the legal concept of criminal responsibility,
- the relationship between mental soundness and liability to punishment.
Thus, the central conceptual cluster involves judgement → insanity → punishment → responsibility.
Step 2: Check each option against these themes.
- Option (1): Contains “empathy” and “prosecution,” but “knowledge” and “business” are irrelevant. Not the closest conceptual match.
- Option (2): Mentions “patronage,” “belief,” and “accounts,” some of which appear in the text but not as central conceptual pillars.
- Option (3): Includes “patriotism” and “prosecution,” but these are peripheral references, not core concerns.
- Option (4): Contains all key ideas:
- Judgement — how courts infer mental state.
- Insanity — central to the rise of alienists.
- Punishment — tied to the legal definition of responsibility.
- Responsibility — the legal concept determining liability.
Conclusion:
Thus, the conceptually closest set is Option (4).
“Conversely, when a defendant struck officials as unlike themselves, whether by dint of disease, gender, confession, or race, the precariousness of judgments about mental state was exposed.”
Which one of the following best describes the use of the word “confession” in this sentence?
Show Hint
- Referring to the practice of ‘confession’ in some faiths, here it is a metaphor for the religion of the defendant.
- Referring to the gender, race or disease claimed as a defence by the defendant, here it is a synonym for ‘professing’ a gender, race, or disease.
- Referring to the defendant’s confession of his or her crime as false, because ‘dint’ is an archaic form of ‘didn’t’ or ‘did not’.
- The defendants struck out at the officials and then confessed to the act.
The Correct Option is A
Solution and Explanation
Step 1: Interpret “confession” in historical/legal context. & nbsp;
In nineteenth-century English usage, “confession” commonly meant religious denomination or faith tradition (e.g., Catholic confession, Protestant confession). Thus, “confession” here refers to religion, not the act of confessing a crime.
Step 2: Evaluate the options.
- Option (1) correctly states that "confession" refers metaphorically to the religious affiliation of the defendant. ✔️
- Option (2) incorrectly generalizes “confession” to gender, race, or disease; this misreads the syntax of the sentence.
- Option (3) completely misinterprets both “confession” and “dint”—“dint” means because of or by means of, not “didn’t.”
- Option (4) proposes a meaning unrelated to the sentence structure or historical usage.
Conclusion:
Thus, the correct interpretation is clearly Option (1).
Top Questions on Reading Comprehension
- The advent of social media has dramatically transformed the way individuals consume and share information. In earlier times, people largely depended on newspapers, radio, or television as their primary sources of knowledge about the world. These were institutions that followed established editorial practices and fact-checking processes. With the rise of digital platforms, however, the traditional ‘gatekeepers’ of information have been bypassed. Today, anyone with internet access can create content, express an opinion, or broadcast an idea to a global audience within seconds.
This shift has certainly democratized access and given voice to communities and individuals who were often ignored by mainstream media. Yet, this democratization comes with challenges. Alongside genuine voices, social media has also amplified misinformation, rumours, and half-truths. Unlike traditional journalism, where accountability and verification are built into the system, social media thrives on speed, virality, and emotion. A misleading headline, a misinterpreted statistic, or even a doctored image can travel across the world before fact-checkers have the chance to intervene.
The consequences of such unchecked information can be serious, ranging from the spread of fear and panic to the manipulation of public opinion. The impact of this transformation extends beyond individual users to institutions and democracies. Political campaigns, corporate branding, and even social movements are now shaped by algorithms that decide what people see and when they see it. These algorithms prioritize engagement, often promoting content that provokes stronger emotional reactions rather than balanced analysis.
As a result, echo chambers form, online spaces where people are repeatedly exposed to opinions that mirror their own, reinforcing biases and reducing openness to differing perspectives. This has contributed to increasing polarization in societies across the world. Moreover, the competition for attention has blurred the line between information and entertainment, leading to the rise of sensationalism even in serious public discourse. The credibility of expertise too has been undermined, as opinions from unverified sources are often placed on the same footing as evidence-based knowledge.
In response, several governments and technology companies are exploring ways to promote digital literacy, enhance transparency in algorithms, and strengthen fact-checking collaborations. Ultimately, the challenge lies in balancing the openness of digital spaces with mechanisms that ensure responsibility and trustworthiness in public communication.- AILET BALLB (Hons.) - 2026
- English
- Reading Comprehension
- I have still to be brother to a Prince, though I once came near to kinship with what might have been a veritable King, and was promised the reversion of a Kingdom, army, law-courts, revenue, and policy, all complete. But, today, I greatly fear that my King is dead, and if I want a crown I must go and hunt it for myself. The beginning of everything was in a railway train upon the road to Mhow from Ajmir. There had been a deficit in the Budget, which necessitated travelling, not Second class, which is only half as dear as First class, but by Intermediate, which is very awful indeed. There are no cushions in the Intermediate class, and the population is either Intermediate, which is Eurasian, or native, which for a long night journey is nasty; or Loafer, which is amusing though intoxicated. Intermediates do not patronize refreshment rooms. They carry their food in bundles and pots, and buy sweets from the native sweet meat sellers, and drink the roadside water. That is why in the hot weather Intermediates are taken out of the carriages dead, and in all weathers are most properly looked down upon.
My particular Intermediate happened to be empty till I reached Nasirabad, when a huge gentleman in shirt sleeves entered, and following the custom of Intermediates, passed the time of day. He was a wanderer and a vagabond like myself, but with an educated taste for alcohol. He told daring tales of things he had seen and done, of out-of-the-way corners of the Empire into which he had penetrated, and of adventures in which he risked his life for a few days’ food. “If India was filled with men like you and me, not knowing more than the crows where they’d get their next day’s rations, it isn’t seventy millions of revenue the land would be paying, it’s seven hundred millions,” said he; and as I looked at his mouth and chin I was disposed to agree with him.
We talked politics, the politics of Loaferdom that sees things from the underside where the lath and plaster is not smoothed off, and we talked postal arrangements because my friend wanted to send a telegram back from the next station to Ajmir, which is the turning off place from the Bombay to the Mhow line as you travel westward. He had the air of one who had seen strange countries and stranger men, yet bore himself without vanity. There was a restless light in his eyes, the sort that belongs to men who have lived too long without a fixed purpose. When he spoke of the Empire, it was not with loyalty nor with bitterness, but with the detached amusement of one who has played his part and lost interest in the game. His laughter came easily, though it seemed to echo from some remembered hardship. It struck me then that his stories were less of adventure than of survival.- AILET BALLB (Hons.) - 2026
- English
- Reading Comprehension
Democracy, often hailed as the most equitable form of governance, is a system where power ultimately rests in the hands of the people. The word derives from the Greek words ”demos” meaning people and ”kratos” meaning power or rule. Democracy aims to provide equal political participation and protect the individual freedoms of all citizens. However, while the idea of democracy is simple, its practice is frequently complex and fraught with challenges. At its core, democracy functions on the principle of majority rule, yet it simultaneously guarantees the protection of minority rights.
This balance ensures that while the majority has the power to make decisions through voting, the fundamental rights of minorities are not trampled upon. Such a system requires consistent vigilance and respect for the rule of law. Without these, democracies can devolve into majoritarian tyranny or authoritarianism. The practice of democracy is not merely limited to voting in elections. It encompasses freedom of speech, an independent judiciary, free press, and protection of individual rights. These elements together create a political environment where citizens can express dissent, hold leaders accountable, and participate actively in decision-making. When any component is weakened, the democratic process becomes vulnerable.
In recent times, democratic societies worldwide have grappled with new challenges. The rise of misinformation and fake news has eroded public trust in institutions and polarized societies. Social media platforms, meant to facilitate communication, have sometimes amplified divisive narratives and falsehoods. This has resulted in voter manipulation and a growing skepticism toward democratic processes. Literacy in media and critical thinking is increasingly vital to safeguard democracy from such threats. Economic inequality poses another significant challenge. While democracy promises equal rights politically, vast disparities in wealth and opportunity undermine this ideal.
This phenomenon raises questions about whether democracy is achievable without addressing socioeconomic inequalities. Furthermore, the involvement of citizens is crucial. Democracy requires that people are informed, engaged, and willing to participate beyond casting votes. Civic education and awareness campaigns play an essential role in nurturing responsible citizenship. Apathy or disengagement weakens the democratic fabric, opening avenues for corruption and other dangers to the system. In conclusion, democracy thrives on the collective responsibility of governments and citizens to protect its pillars and ensure inclusive, fair governance.- AILET BALLB (Hons.) - 2026
- English
- Reading Comprehension
The Rule of Law
by Tom BinghamJustice: What’s the Right Thing to Do?
by Michael J. SandelLetters to a Law Student
by Nicholas J. McBrideIn The Rule of Law, former Lord Chief Justice Tom Bingham explores how the principle of legality underpins modern democratic life. He defines the rule of law as more than just adherence to formal rules; it is the assurance that power is exercised within clear, fair, and publicly known boundaries.
Bingham distills the concept into eight principles, including equality before the law, access to justice, and respect for fundamental human rights. Drawing on cases and historical examples, he warns that national security and administrative efficiency must never override the rights of individuals.
The book bridges legal philosophy and practice, arguing that law must be both predictable and humane. For Bingham, the rule of law represents a moral ideal, one that sustains public trust in justice and curbs arbitrary governance.Michael Sandel’s Justice: What’s the Right Thing to Do? examines moral reasoning in law and politics. Through examples like price gouging, affirmative action, and taxation, Sandel invites readers to explore competing notions of fairness.
He engages with philosophical traditions such as utilitarianism, libertarianism, and Rawlsian egalitarianism, showing that questions of justice cannot be separated from questions of virtue and the common good.
Sandel rejects the idea of a morally “neutral” legal system, arguing that public deliberation about values is essential to democracy. Ultimately, he argues that a just society is one that cultivates civic responsibility, not merely individual rights.Nicholas McBride’s Letters to a Law Student is a practical and reflective guide for aspiring lawyers. Written as a series of letters to a student beginning law school, it explores what legal study truly involves.
This includes mastering case analysis, understanding precedents, and developing critical reasoning. McBride distinguishes between knowing the law and thinking like a lawyer, the latter requiring analytical discipline and ethical awareness.
He emphasizes that good lawyers combine intellectual rigor with moral judgment and clarity of expression. Beyond academic success, the book urges students to reflect on law’s purpose, balancing order, justice, and compassion in human affairs.- AILET BALLB (Hons.) - 2026
- English
- Reading Comprehension
Urban gardening has become increasingly popular as a means to address food security, sustainability, and mental well-being in cities. By growing their own fruits, vegetables, and herbs, individuals can reduce their reliance on commercial supply chains that contribute to extensive transportation, energy consumption, and synthetic chemical use. In addition to providing fresh, nutritious food, urban gardening also contributes to environmental sustainability by mitigating urban heat island effects, improving air quality, and managing water runoff. Furthermore, it offers psychological benefits, including reduced stress, improved mood, and a sense of accomplishment. Despite its many benefits, urban gardening faces challenges like space limitations, poor soil quality, and inadequate sunlight, which gardeners overcome using innovative techniques such as vertical farming and hydroponics.
- AILET BALLB (Hons.) - 2026
- English
- Reading Comprehension
Questions Asked in CAT exam
- In a $\triangle ABC$, points $D$ and $E$ are on the sides $BC$ and $AC$, respectively. $BE$ and $AD$ intersect at point $T$ such that $AD : AT = 4 : 3$, and $BE : BT = 5 : 4$. Point $F$ lies on $AC$ such that $DF$ is parallel to $BE$. Then, $BD : CD$ is:
- CAT - 2025
- Geometry
- In the sequence 1, 3, 5, 7, ..., k, ..., 57, the sum of the numbers up to k, excluding k, is equal to the sum of the numbers from k up to 57, also excluding k. What is k?
- CAT - 2025
- Arithmetic Progression
- Find the number of integer pairs (x, y) that satisfy the following system of inequalities:
\[ \begin{cases} x \geq y \geq 3 \\ x + y \leq 14 \end{cases} \]
- CAT - 2025
- Linear & Quadratic Equations
- The monthly sales of a product from January to April were 120, 135, 150 and 165 units, respectively. The cost price of the product was Rs. 240 per unit, and a fixed marked price was used for the product in all the four months. Discounts of 20%, 10% and 5% were given on the marked price per unit in January, February and March, respectively, while no discounts were given in April. If the total profit from January to April was Rs. 138825, then the marked price per unit, in rupees, was
- CAT - 2025
- Profit and Loss
- An item with a cost price of Rs.1650 is sold at a certain discount on a fixed marked price to earn a profit of 20% on the cost price. If the discount was doubled, the profit would have been Rs.110. The rate of discount, in percentage, at which the profit percentage would be equal to the rate of discount, is nearest to:
- CAT - 2025
- Profit and Loss