We begin with the emergence of the philosophy of the social sciences as an arena of thought and as a set of social institutions. The two characterisations overlap but are not congruent. Academic disciplines are social institutions. . . . My view is that institutions are all those social entities that organise action: they link acting individuals into social structures. There are various kinds of institutions. Hegelians and Marxists emphasise universal institutions such as the family, rituals, governance, economy and the military. These are mostly institutions that just grew. Perhaps in some imaginary beginning of time they spontaneously appeared. In
their present incarnations, however, they are very much the product of conscious attempts to mould and plan them. We have family law, established and disestablished churches, constitutions and laws, including those governing the economy and the military. Institutions deriving from statute, like joint-stock companies are formal by contrast with informal ones such as friendships. There are some institutions that come in both informal and formal variants, as well as in mixed ones. Consider the fact that the stock exchange and the black market are both market institutions, one formal one not. Consider further that there are many features of the work of the stock exchange that rely on informal, noncodifiable agreements, not least the language used for communication. To be precise, mixtures are the norm . . . From constitutions at the top to by-laws near the bottom we are always adding to, or tinkering with, earlier institutions, the grown and the designed are intertwined.
It is usual in social thought to treat culture and tradition as different from, although alongside, institutions. The view taken here is different. Culture and tradition are sub-sets of institutions analytically isolated for explanatory or expository purposes. Some social scientists have taken all institutions, even purely local ones, to be entities that satisfy basic human needs – under local conditions . . . Others differed and declared any structure of reciprocal roles and norms an institution. Most of these differences are differences of emphasis rather than disagreements. Let us straddle all these versions and present institutions very generally . . as structures that serve to coordinate the actions of individuals. . . . Institutions themselves then have no aims or purpose other than those given to them by actors or used by actors to explain them . . .
Language is the formative institution for social life and for science . . . Both formal and informal language is involved, naturally grown or designed. (Language is all of these to varying degrees.) Languages are paradigms of institutions or, from another perspective, nested sets of institutions. Syntax, semantics, lexicon and alphabet/character-set are all institutions within the larger institutional framework of a written language. Natural languages are typical examples of what Ferguson called ‘the result of human action, but not the execution of any human design’[;] reformed natural languages and artificial languages introduce design into their modifications or refinements of natural language. Above all,
languages are paradigms of institutional tools that function to coordinate.
All of the following inferences from the passage are false, EXCEPT:
- institutions like the family, rituals, governance, economy, and the military are natural and cannot be consciously modified.
- as concepts, “culture” and “tradition” have no analytical, explanatory or expository power, especially when they are treated in isolation.
- the institution of friendship cannot be found in the institution of joint-stock companies because the first is an informal institution, while the second is a formal one.
- “natural language” refers to that stage of language development where no conscious human intent is evident in the formation of language.
The Correct Option is D
Solution and Explanation
The question requires us to identify the correct inference. In the first paragraph, the passage mentions, "universal institutions such as the family, rituals, governance, economy, and the military. These are mostly institutions that just grew... In their present incarnations, however, they are very much the product of conscious attempts to mold and plan them." This contradicts option 1. The passage further states, "Culture and tradition are sub-sets of institutions analytically isolated for explanatory or expository purposes," refuting option 2. The statement, "Institutions deriving from statute, like joint-stock companies are formal by contrast with informal ones such as friendships," does not provide evidence supporting option 3. As option 3 cannot be inferred, it is a false inference. There is no correlation between the institution of friendship and joint-stock companies, except that one is formal while the other is informal. The last paragraph mentions, "Natural languages are typical examples of what Ferguson called ‘the result of human action, but not the execution of any human design,’" supporting option 4. Therefore, option 4 is the most appropriate choice.
In the first paragraph of the passage, what are the two “characterisations” that are seen as overlapping but not congruent?
- “an arena of thought” and “academic disciplines”.
- “individuals” and “social structures”.
- “academic disciplines” and “institutions”.
- “the philosophy of the social sciences” and “a set of social institutions”.
The Correct Option is C
Solution and Explanation
The answer to this question can be found at the start of the first paragraph, though we need to examine closely what those two overlapping things are. The author, in the first paragraph, states, “We begin with the emergence of the philosophy of the social sciences as an arena of thought and as a set of social institutions. The two characterizations overlap but are not congruent”… From this sentence, it is clear that one of the characterizations is “social institutions”... This helps us eliminate options 1 and 2 because neither has the word ‘institutions’ or ‘social institutions’. Out of options 3 and 4, we can choose 3 because if one characterization is ‘social institutions’, the other is ‘an arena of thought’. What does the author mean by ‘an arena of thought’? It is not philosophy but an academic study. Hence, 3 is the best answer. We have to understand that it is the philosophy of social sciences that has two things: an arena of thought (academic discipline) and a set of social institutions.
“Consider the fact that the stock exchange and the black market are both market institutions, one formal one not.” Which one of the following statements best explains this quote, in the context of the passage?
- Market instruments can be formally traded in the stock exchange and informally traded in the black market.
- The stock exchange and the black market are both organised to function by rules.
- The stock exchange and the black market are both dependent on the market to survive.
- The stock exchange and the black market are examples of how, even within the same domain, different kinds of institutions can co-exist.
The Correct Option is D
Solution and Explanation
To find the correct answer, we should refer to the part of the passage where the quote has been mentioned. The author states a fact with a specific purpose, which is to illustrate the interconnectedness of everything. The options guide us to the right answer. The examples of the stock exchange and black market are not presented for a detailed discussion of their technicalities; rather, they are used to emphasize a particular perspective, which aligns with option 4. This option is the most suitable answer because it encapsulates the broader point the author aims to convey through these examples — the coexistence of different institutions.
Which of the following statements best represents the essence of the passage?
- It is usual in social thought to treat culture and tradition as different from institutions.
- Language is the fundamental formal institution for social life and for science.
- The stock exchange and the black market are both market institutions.
- Institutions are structures that serve to coordinate the actions of individuals.
The Correct Option is D
Solution and Explanation
To answer this question, we have to consider the broader picture. Option 1 mentions ‘it is usual…,’ but whether something is usual or not is not the theme of the passage. Additionally, language and the stock exchange are not the central ideas. Option 4 is the best choice simply by elimination because right across the passage, the author discusses the importance of institutions. The last sentence of the paragraph says, “Above all, languages are paradigms of institutional tools that function to coordinate.”… Language is also considered an institution, but not the only institution.
Top Questions on Literature
- The passage below is accompanied by a set of questions. Choose the best answer to each question.
The Chinese have two different concepts of a copy. Fangzhipin . . . are imitations where the difference from
the original is obvious. These are small models or copies that can be purchased in a museum shop, for
example. The second concept for a copy is fuzhipin . . . They are exact reproductions of the original, which,
for the Chinese, are of equal value to the original. It has absolutely no negative connotations. The
discrepancy with regard to the understanding of what a copy is has often led to misunderstandings and
arguments between China and Western museums. The Chinese often send copies abroad instead of originals,
in the firm belief that they are not essentially different from the originals. The rejection that then comes
from the Western museums is perceived by the Chinese as an insult. . . .
The Far Eastern notion of identity is also very confusing to the Western observer. The Ise Grand Shrine [in
Japan] is 1,300 years old for the millions of Japanese people who go there on pilgrimage every year. But in
reality this temple complex is completely rebuilt from scratch every 20 years. . . .
The cathedral of Freiburg Minster in southwest Germany is covered in scaffolding almost all year round. The
sandstone from which it is built is a very soft, porous material that does not withstand natural erosion by rain
and wind. After a while, it crumbles. As a result, the cathedral is continually being examined for damage, and
eroded stones are replaced. And in the cathedral’s dedicated workshop, copies of the damaged sandstone
figures are constantly being produced. Of course, attempts are made to preserve the stones from the Middle
Ages for as long as possible. But at some point they, too, are removed and replaced with new stones.
Fundamentally, this is the same operation as with the Japanese shrine, except in this case the production of a
replica takes place very slowly and over long periods of time. . . . In the field of art as well, the idea of an
unassailable original developed historically in the Western world. Back in the 17th century [in the West],
excavated artworks from antiquity were treated quite differently from today. They were not restored in a
way that was faithful to the original. Instead, there was massive intervention in these works, changing their
appearance. . . .
It is probably this intellectual position that explains why Asians have far fewer scruples about cloning than
Europeans. The South Korean cloning researcher Hwang Woo-suk, who attracted worldwide attention with
his cloning experiments in 2004, is a Buddhist. He found a great deal of support and followers among
Buddhists, while Christians called for a ban on human cloning. . . . Hwang legitimised his cloning experiments
with his religious affiliation: ‘I am Buddhist, and I have no philosophical problem with cloning. And as you
know, the basis of Buddhism is that life is recycled through reincarnation. In some ways, I think, therapeutic
cloning restarts the circle of life.’ - Compare and contrast between Portia and Jessica characters in Merchant of Venice.
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