Step 1: Understand what ODR is
Online Dispute Resolution (ODR) refers to dispute resolution using digital platforms, especially over the internet, for matters like consumer complaints, civil cases, and e-commerce.
Step 2: Trace the historical origin
The USA pioneered ODR in the late 1990s, especially through platforms like eBay and PayPal to handle cross-border and customer disputes quickly.
Step 3: Comparative review of options
Japan and France followed later with regulatory frameworks.
Singapore emerged as a leader in Asia-Pacific in recent years, but not the origin.
USA was the first country to develop and apply ODR at scale.
Step 4: Conclusion
The correct answer is USA.
Under the Transfer of Property Act, 1882 a mortgage is a transfer of an interest in specific immovable property for securing the payment of a debt. Section 58 of the Act enumerates six distinct types of mortgages, each characterized by unique rights and obligations of the mortgagor and mortgagee. These categories reflect the balance of right of alienation and right to hold the property, contingent upon the nature of the transfer. In a simple mortgage, the mortgagor binds himself personally to repay the debt and agrees, expressly or impliedly, that in the event of default, the mortgagee shall have the right to cause the mortgaged property to be sold. There is no transfer of possession.
A mortgage by conditional sale involves an ostensible sale with a condition that upon default of payment, the sale becomes absolute. Courts scrutinize such arrangements to prevent clogs on the equity of redemption. A usufructuary mortgage grants the mortgagee possession and the right to receive rents and profits in lieu of interest or principal, aligning with the maxim, nemo dat quod non habet. It is essential to note that an earlier mortgage takes precedence based on the legal maxim, qui prior est tempore potior est jure. An English mortgage entails personal liability of the mortgagor and an absolute transfer of the property to the mortgagee with a covenant to retransfer upon payment. Other forms include mortgage by deposit of title deeds or equitable mortgage, and anomalous mortgages, which do not fit into the above classifications. These variations reveal the nuanced jurisprudence of secured transactions, balancing contractual freedom with equitable oversight.