Over the course of the twentieth century, humans built, on average, one large dam a day, hulking structures of steel and concrete designed to control flooding, facilitate irrigation, and generate electricity. Dams were also lucrative contracts, large-scale employers, and the physical instantiation of a messianic drive to conquer territories and control nature. Some of the results of that drive were charismatic mega-infrastructure—the Hoover on the Colorado River or the Aswan on the Nile—but most of the tens of thousands of dams that dot the Earth’s landscape have drawn little attention. These are the smaller, though not inconsequential, barriers that today impede the flow of water on nearly two-thirds of the world’s large waterways. Chances are, what your map calls a “lake” is actually a reservoir, and that thin blue line that emerges from it once flowed very differently.
Damming a river is always a partisan act. Even when explicit infrastructure goals—irrigation, flood control, electrification—were met, other consequences were significant and often deleterious. Across the world, river control displaced millions of people, threatening livelihoods, foodways, and cultures. In the western United States, dams were often an instrument of colonialism, used to dispossess Indigenous people and subsidize settler agriculture. And as dams slowed the flow of water, inhibited the movement of nutrients, and increased the amount of toxic algae and other parasites, they snuffed out entire river ecologies. Declining fish populations are the most evident effect, but dams also threaten a host of other animals—from birds and reptiles to fungi and plants—with extinction. Every major dam, then, is also a sacrifice zone, a place where lives, livelihoods, and ways of life are eliminated so that new sorts of landscapes can support water-intensive agriculture and cities that sprout downstream of new reservoirs.
Such sacrifices have been justified as offerings at the temples of modernity. Justified by—and for—whom, though? Over the course of the twentieth century, rarely were the costs and benefits weighed thoughtfully and decided democratically. As Kader Asmal, chair of the landmark 2000 World Commission on Dams, concluded, “There have been precious few, if any, comprehensive, independent analyses as to why dams came about, how dams perform over time, and whether we are getting a fair return from our 2 trillion Dollar investment.” A quarter-century later, Asmal’s words ring ever truer. A litany of dams built in the mid-twentieth century are approaching the end of their expected lives, with worrying prospects for their durability. Droughts, magnified and multiplied by the effects of climate change, have forced more and more to run below capacity. If ever there were a time to rethink the mania for dams, it would be now.
There is some evidence that a combination of opposition, alternative energy sources, and a lack of viable projects has slowed the construction of major dams. But a wave of recent and ongoing construction, from India and China to Ethiopia and Canada, continues to tilt the global balance firmly in favor of water impoundment.
What does the author wish to communicate by referring to the Hoover and Aswan dams in the first paragraph?
Show Hint
- The Colorado and Nile rivers may be seen as thin blue lines on a map.
- The designers and builders of these mega-structures were highly charismatic individuals.
- The drive to control nature is evident not only in mega-infrastructures like the Hoover and Aswan dams, but in smaller dams as well.
- By building dams like the Hoover and Aswan dams, large-scale employers became messianic figures.
The Correct Option is C
Approach Solution - 1
To determine what the author wishes to communicate by referring to the Hoover and Aswan dams in the first paragraph, let's closely analyze the provided comprehension passage:
The passage discusses the widespread construction of dams throughout the twentieth century, emphasizing their role in controlling nature and reshaping landscapes. The author mentions that while iconic structures like the Hoover and Aswan dams capture attention, most dams are smaller and less conspicuous yet significant in their environmental impact.
Let's evaluate the options provided:
The Colorado and Nile rivers may be seen as thin blue lines on a map.
- - This option is not aligned with the first paragraph's focus on the impact and drive behind dam construction. It mentions the rivers, not the dams themselves.
The designers and builders of these mega-structures were highly charismatic individuals.
- - The passage does not focus on the personalities behind the dam constructions but rather on the structural and environmental impacts.
The drive to control nature is evident not only in mega-infrastructures like the Hoover and Aswan dams, but in smaller dams as well.
- - This option aligns well with the paragraph's emphasis on the human drive to dominate nature manifesting through both large and small dam projects.
By building dams like the Hoover and Aswan dams, large-scale employers became messianic figures.
- - Although the passage mentions a "messianic drive," it is in the context of controlling nature, not the characterization of employers.
The correct answer is indeed: The drive to control nature is evident not only in mega-infrastructures like the Hoover and Aswan dams, but in smaller dams as well. This option best represents the author's intention by highlighting how both large and small dams embody the human impulse to manage and alter natural environments.
Approach Solution -2
The question asks about the author's intention in mentioning the Hoover and Aswan dams in the first paragraph of the comprehension passage. Let us analyze each option to determine the correct answer.
- The Colorado and Nile rivers may be seen as thin blue lines on a map.
- This option is not supported by the paragraph. While the paragraph mentions how maps may misrepresent reservoirs as lakes and flowing lines as rivers, it does not specifically relate to the author's point about the Hoover and Aswan dams.
- The designers and builders of these mega-structures were highly charismatic individuals.
- This option is not the focus of the paragraph. The passage discusses the mega-infrastructure projects as objects of attention and not about the charisma of their designers and builders.
- The drive to control nature is evident not only in mega-infrastructures like the Hoover and Aswan dams, but in smaller dams as well.
- This option is supported by the passage. The author mentions the Hoover and Aswan dams as examples of "charismatic mega-infrastructure" and highlights that there are many smaller dams that also aim to control nature by affecting water flow and regulating rivers.
- By building dams like the Hoover and Aswan dams, large-scale employers became messianic figures.
- Although the passage talks about the ideological drive behind dam constructions resembling a messianic endeavor, it does not specify that the employers themselves became such figures. The focus is more on the infrastructures as manifestations of controlling nature.
Therefore, the correct answer is: The drive to control nature is evident not only in mega-infrastructures like the Hoover and Aswan dams, but in smaller dams as well. This option properly reflects the emphasis placed on the effort to dominate nature through various dam projects, including both large and small-scale structures.
The word “instantiation” is used in the first paragraph. Which one of the following pairs of terms would be the best substitute for it in the context of its usage in the paragraph?
Show Hint
- Exemplification and manifestation
- Development and construction
- Durability and timeliness
- Concreteness and viability
The Correct Option is A
Approach Solution - 1
The question asks us to find the best substitute for the word "instantiation" in the context in which it is used in the provided paragraph. To find the most appropriate substitute, let's first understand the context and meaning of "instantiation" within the paragraph.
In the paragraph, the word "instantiation" is used to describe dams as the physical embodiment or representation of humanity's drive to conquer territories and control nature. Therefore, "instantiation" here refers to the act of representing or embodying an idea.
Now, let's analyze each of the given options:
- Exemplification and manifestation:
- Exemplification means to serve as an example of something, which aligns closely with how dams serve as examples or representations of the drive to control nature.
- Manifestation refers to the act of embodying or making something evident, which also fits well with "instantiation."
- Development and construction:
- While development and construction relate to the process of building, they do not convey the idea of representation or embodiment.
- Durability and timeliness:
- Durability refers to long-lasting capability, and timeliness relates to being on time. Both words do not convey representation.
- Concreteness and viability:
- Concreteness refers to something tangible, while viability implies the ability to work successfully, neither of which specifically relate to representing an idea.
Based on the analysis, the correct answer is "Exemplification and manifestation," as they best encapsulate the meaning of "instantiation" in the context of representing or embodying the messianic drive to control nature.
Approach Solution -2
The question asks for the best pair of terms to substitute for "instantiation" as used in the paragraph. To determine this, we need to consider the context in which "instantiation" is used:
The passage discusses dams as physical manifestations of humankind's desire to control territories and nature. The word "instantiation" refers to making an abstract idea concrete. In this context, "instantiation" describes dams as concrete examples or materializations of an abstract concept—specifically, human ambition to control nature.
Let's analyze each option:
- Exemplification and manifestation: These words relate to showing something through examples or giving form to an idea. Given the context of "instantiation," these words align well as dams are examples and manifestations of human control over nature.
- Development and construction: While dams are built through development and construction, these terms focus more on the process rather than the representation of an idea.
- Durability and timeliness: These terms relate to longevity and time relevance, which are not directly related to the context of showing or embodying an idea.
- Concreteness and viability: Concreteness relates to being tangible, which is part of instantiation; however, viability concerns practicality or feasibility, which is not directly relevant to instantiation.
Given this analysis, the best substitute for "instantiation" is Exemplification and manifestation. This choice captures the essence of demonstrating or materializing an idea, aligning directly with the context provided by the passage.
All of the following statements may be considered valid inferences from the passage EXCEPT that:
Show Hint
- Despite increasing evidence of opposition to dams as well as alternatives to them, they continue to be built.
- Dam-building has proved to be an extremely costly enterprise that may not be justifiable.
- Processes of colonisation have used dam-building to make people vacate their territories.
- Smaller, though not inconsequential, dams are safer than large dam projects.
The Correct Option is D
Approach Solution - 1
To solve the question, we must analyze the passage to determine which statement among the options cannot be inferred logically from the passage provided.
- Option Analysis:
- Option 1: "Despite increasing evidence of opposition to dams as well as alternatives to them, they continue to be built." The passage mentions ongoing construction of dams in various countries such as India, China, Ethiopia, and Canada. This indicates that such activity persists despite oppositional forces and alternatives, making this inference valid.
- Option 2: "Dam-building has proved to be an extremely costly enterprise that may not be justifiable." The passage critiques the economic and ecological costs of dam-building, quoting Kader Asmal on the lack of comprehensive evaluations of their benefits versus costs. This can be inferred as questioning the justification of dam-building.
- Option 3: "Processes of colonization have used dam-building to make people vacate their territories." The passage explicitly states that in the western United States, dams were used as instruments of colonialism to dispossess Indigenous people and support settler agriculture. Thus, this is a valid inference.
- Option 4: "Smaller, though not inconsequential, dams are safer than large dam projects." The passage mentions smaller dams but does not discuss the safety of smaller versus larger dams. No matter the characteristics or consequences, the passage provides no evidence to support a comparison based on safety between different sizes of dams. Therefore, this statement cannot be inferred from the passage.
- Conclusion: The statement that cannot be inferred from the passage is Option 4: "Smaller, though not inconsequential, dams are safer than large dam projects." This option lacks support from the passage content.
Approach Solution -2
This question asks us to identify which of the provided statements cannot be considered a valid inference from the passage. Let's analyze each option to determine the correct answer:
- Statement 1: Despite increasing evidence of opposition to dams as well as alternatives to them, they continue to be built.
- This statement aligns with the passage, which indicates that although there is opposition and alternatives to dams, construction continues, particularly in countries like India, China, Ethiopia, and Canada.
- Statement 2: Dam-building has proved to be an extremely costly enterprise that may not be justifiable.
- The passage supports this statement by discussing the lack of comprehensive analysis on the costs and benefits of dams and questions whether the substantial investments were justified.
- Statement 3: Processes of colonisation have used dam-building to make people vacate their territories.
- This statement is backed by the passage, which states that in the western United States, dams were used as instruments of colonialism to displace Indigenous people.
- Statement 4: Smaller, though not inconsequential, dams are safer than large dam projects.
- The passage does mention smaller dams but does not provide any information or inference that they are safer than large dam projects. Therefore, this statement is not a valid inference from the passage.
The statement that cannot be validly inferred from the passage is thus Statement 4. It is the correct answer as it presents an assertion about safety that the passage does not address.
Which one of the following sets of terms is closest to mapping the key arguments of the passage?
Show Hint
- Mega-infrastructure – Sacrifice zone – Worshipping modernity – Water impoundment
- Partisan act – Threatened livelihoods – Toxic algae – Quarter century
- Lucrative contracts – Sacrifice zone – Expected lives – Global balance
- Physical instantiation – Partisan act – Decided democratically – Alternative energy
The Correct Option is A
Approach Solution - 1
The task is to determine which set of terms best maps the key arguments presented in the passage. Let's analyze the passage and take note of the significant themes and concepts mentioned:
- Mega-infrastructure: The passage discusses the construction of large dams as formidable structures of steel and concrete, showcasing the ambitious human endeavor to control nature and conquer territories. This pertains to the theme of mega-infrastructure.
- Sacrifice zone: The passage describes how damming rivers displaces communities, threatens livelihoods, and leads to ecological damage, thus converting areas into sacrifice zones where traditional ways of life are sacrificed for modern developments.
- Worshipping modernity: The text highlights the justification for these large structures as offerings at modernity's altar, suggesting a kind of worship or blind faith in the progress that these infrastructures symbolize.
- Water impoundment: The passage illustrates the global trend towards creating reservoirs by damming rivers, emphasizing water control and impoundment as key aspects of dam projects.
With these key points in mind, let's evaluate the options:
- Option 1: Mega-infrastructure – Sacrifice zone – Worshipping modernity – Water impoundment
- This option accurately reflects the major themes discussed: the construction of large structures, the transformation of areas into sacrifice zones, the notion of progress and modernity as justifications, and the water control aspect.
- Option 2: Partisan act – Threatened livelihoods – Toxic algae – Quarter century
- Though partially related, this set focuses more on nuanced issues and less on the overarching arguments around infrastructure and worshipping modernity. It misses the global ambition and overarching theme of modernity worship.
- Option 3: Lucrative contracts – Sacrifice zone – Expected lives – Global balance
- While sacrifice zones are mentioned, this option does not capture the full scope of worshipping modernity or infrastructure emphasis. Lucrative contracts are a part of the discussion but aren't central to the key arguments of the passage.
- Option 4: Physical instantiation – Partisan act – Decided democratically – Alternative energy
- This set fails to grasp the thematic focus on mega-infrastructure and the broader implications of the construction as a tribute to modernity. While it includes some relevant terms, it is not as aligned with the core argument as Option 1.
Hence, the correct answer is Option 1: Mega-infrastructure – Sacrifice zone – Worshipping modernity – Water impoundment as it best encapsulates the central themes of the passage.
Approach Solution -2
To determine the set of terms that closely maps the key arguments of the passage, we need to analyze the thematic elements and major points conveyed in the passage.
- The passage discusses the construction of large dams over the twentieth century, particularly highlighting them as mega-infrastructure projects. These projects were often large-scale undertakings involving significant transformations of landscapes.
- It introduces the concept of a sacrifice zone, referring to areas and ecologies that are negatively impacted or destroyed due to these infrastructural developments. The passage mentions displaced people, endangered species, and disrupted ecosystems as consequences of dam construction.
- There is mention of worshipping modernity in how these projects were pursued, suggesting that dams were constructed as symbols of progress and modernity, often without sufficient consideration of their negative impacts or a democratic assessment of their need and efficiency.
- The passage also discusses water impoundment, as dams fundamentally serve to obstruct and manage water flow, creating reservoirs and impacting natural waterways.
Given these points, let's evaluate the options provided:
- Mega-infrastructure – Sacrifice zone – Worshipping modernity – Water impoundment: This option directly corresponds to the main themes discussed in the passage. It accurately captures the nature of large dam projects, the concept of sacrifice zones, the ideological drive towards modernity, and the practice of water impoundment.
- Partisan act – Threatened livelihoods – Toxic algae – Quarter century: While some terms here, such as "partisan act" and "threatened livelihoods," are mentioned, others do not encompass the full argument of the passage.
- Lucrative contracts – Sacrifice zone – Expected lives – Global balance: Although this option mentions "sacrifice zone" and "lucrative contracts," other terms like "expected lives" and "global balance" do not align directly with the central arguments of the passage.
- Physical instantiation – Partisan act – Decided democratically – Alternative energy: This option includes "partisan act" but introduces elements like "decided democratically" and "alternative energy" that do not fully capture the key points discussed in the passage regarding dams and their impact.
Therefore, the correct answer is the option "Mega-infrastructure – Sacrifice zone – Worshipping modernity – Water impoundment", as it closely matches the key themes and arguments of the passage as provided.
Top Questions on Reading Comprehension
- Shown below are letters ‘e’ taken from four popular logos, arranged in a sequence. Which of the options is the correct sequence?
- UCEED - 2026
- English Language Comprehension
- Reading Comprehension
- Shown below are four options, each showing consecutive frames representing the movement of a pendulum of an old-style wall clock for an animation movie. Which is the correct option?
- UCEED - 2026
- English Language Comprehension
- Reading Comprehension
- Acrucial moderating factor in how people experience comparisons is self-esteem. Individuals with high self-esteem are more likely to interpret upward comparison as informative rather than threatening. They are more resilient in the face of others’ success and more likely to believe they can reach their own goals. In contrast, people with low self-esteem are more prone to interpret comparison as judgment, reinforcing negative self-views and triggering feelings of inadequacy.
This dynamic creates a self-reinforcing loop. People with high self-esteem are less vulnerable to upward comparison, which intensifies those doubts. Those with a secure sense of self are more likely to use comparison as a learning tool. The same external stimulus—a colleague’s achievements, a friend’s popularity—can have radically different effects depending on internal stability.
Self-esteem also influences how people choose their comparison targets. Research has found that individuals often engage in “selective comparison,” seeking out those who confirm their existing beliefs about themselves. This can become a subtle form of self-sabotage. Someone who feels unworthy may subconsciously seek out targets that reinforce that sense, perpetuating a narrative of inferiority. One of the most promising antidotes to social comparison is temporal comparison—evaluating oneself not against others, but against one’s own past. This method has been shown to increase motivation and satisfaction, especially when individuals can see concrete progress. Temporal comparison activates the same reward circuits as social comparison but avoids the threat systems associated with social ranking. It also reinforces agency: individuals focus on what they can control and improve rather than what others control. In therapeutic and coaching settings, temporal comparison is used to help clients build self-efficacy and track growth over time.
Moreover, people who focus on self-improvement rather than social dominance are less likely to fall into cycles of envy or self-pity. They can still use others as inspiration, but they do so without attaching their self-worth to the outcome. This is not to say they never compare—but that they focus on learning, rather than judgment. The most skilful approach to comparison may lie in eliminating it, but in reframing it as feedback. When we interpret comparison as information rather than a verdict, we can ask, “What can I learn from this?” This shift turns comparison into a growth tool. Teachers mentor their students, not as rivals. Psychologists emphasize that the key variable here is mindset.
A fixed mindset sees comparison as a threat. If someone else is better, it means we are worse. A growth mindset sees comparison as a map. If someone else has reached a certain level, it means the path exists. This reframing is not just a cognitive trick. It changes the emotional tone of comparison, making it more likely to inspire than to wound. Reframing also requires emotional regulation—the ability to notice an initial pang of envy or shame without reacting impulsively. With practice, individuals can learn to pause, reflect, and reinterpret their emotional responses. Over time, this builds resilience and self-trust, allowing comparison to become a learning tool rather than a cage.- XAT - 2026
- Verbal and Logical Ability
- Reading Comprehension
When people who are talking don’t share the same culture, knowledge, values, and assumptions, mutual understanding can be especially difficult. Such understanding is possible through the negotiation of meaning. To negotiate meaning with someone, you have to become aware of and respect both the differences in your backgrounds and when these differences are important. You need enough diversity of cultural and personal experience to be aware that divergent world views exist and what they might be like. You also need the flexibility in world view, and a generous tolerance for mistakes, as well as a talent for finding the right metaphor to communicate the relevant parts of unshared experiences or to highlight the shared experiences while demphasizing the others. Metaphorical imagination is a crucial skill in creating rapport and in communicating the nature of unshared experience. This skill consists, in large measure, of the ability to bend your world view and adjust the way you categorize your experiences. Problems of mutual understanding are not exotic; they arise in all extended conversations where understanding is important.
When it really counts, meaning is almost never communicated according to the CONDUIT metaphor, that is, where one person transmits a fixed, clear proposition to another by means of expressions in a common language, where both parties have all the relevant common knowledge, assumptions, values, etc. When the chips are down, meaning is negotiated: you slowly figure out what you have in common, what it is safe to talk about, how you can communicate unshared experience or create a shared vision. With enough flexibility in bending your world view and with luck and charity, you may achieve some mutual understanding.
Communication theories based on the CONDUIT metaphor turn from the pathetic to the evil when they are applied indiscriminately on a large scale, say, in government surveillance or computerized files. There, what is most crucial for real understanding is almost never included, and it is assumed that the words in the file have meaning in themselves—disembodied, objective, understandable meaning. When a society lives by the CONDUITmetaphor on a large scale, misunderstanding, persecution, and much worse are the likely products.- XAT - 2026
- Verbal and Logical Ability
- Reading Comprehension
Later, I realized that reviewing the history of nuclear physics served another purpose as well: It gave the lie to the naive belief that the physicists could have come together when nuclear fission was discovered (in Nazi Germany!) and agreed to keep the discovery a secret, thereby sparing humanity such a burden. No. Given the development of nuclear physics up to 1938, development that physicists throughout the world pursued in all innocence of any intention of finding the engine of a new weapon of mass destruction—only one of them, the remarkable Hungarian physicist Leo Szilard, took that possibility seriously—the discovery of nuclear fission was inevitable. To stop it, you would have had to stop physics. If German scientists hadn’t made the discovery when they did, French, American, Russian, Italian, or Danish scientists would have done so, almost certainly within days or weeks. They were all working at the same cutting edge, trying to understand the strange results of a simple experiment bombarding uranium with neutrons. Here was no Faustian bargain, as movie directors and other naifs still find it intellectually challenging to imagine. Here was no evil machinery that the noble scientists might hide from the problems and the generals. To the contrary, there was a high insight into how the world works, an energetic reaction, older than the earth, that science had finally devised the instruments and arrangements to coart forth. “Make it seem inevitable,” Louis Pasteur used to advise his students when they prepared to write up their discoveries. But it was. To wish that it might have been ignored or suppressed is barbarous. “Knowledge,” Niels Bohr once noted, “is itself the basis for civilization.” You cannot have the one without the other; the one depends upon the other. Nor can you have only benevolent knowledge; the scientific method doesn’t filter for benevolence. Knowledge has consequences, not always intended, not always comfortable, but always welcome. The earth revolves around the sun, not the sun around the earth. “It is a profound and necessary truth,” Robert Oppenheimer would say, “that the deep things in science are not found because they are useful; they are found because it was possible to find them.”
...Bohr proposed once that the goal of science is not universal truth. Rather, he argued, the modest but relentless goal of science is “the gradual removal of prejudices.” The discovery that the earth revolves around the sun has gradually removed the prejudice that the earth is the center of the universe. The discovery of microbes is gradually removing the prejudice that disease is a punishment from God. The discovery of evolution is gradually removing the prejudice that Homo sapiens is a separate and special creation.- XAT - 2026
- Verbal and Logical Ability
- Reading Comprehension
Questions Asked in CAT exam
- The passage given below is followed by four summaries. Choose the option that best captures the essence of the passage.
In the dynamic realm of creativity, artists often find themselves at the crossroads between drawing inspiration from diverse cultures and inadvertently crossing into the territory of cultural appropriation. Inspiration is the lifeblood of creativity, driving artists to create works that resonate across borders. In a globalized era of the modern world, artists draw from a vast array of cultural influences. When approached respectfully, inspiration becomes a bridge, fostering understanding and appreciation of cultural diversity. However, the line between inspiration and cultural appropriation can be thin and easily blurred.
Cultural appropriation occurs when elements from a particular culture are borrowed without proper understanding, respect, or acknowledgment. This leads to the commodification of sacred symbols, the reinforcement of stereotypes, and the erasure of the cultural context from which these elements originated. It is essential to recognize that the impact of cultural appropriation extends beyond the realm of artistic expression, influencing societal perceptions and perpetuating power imbalances.- CAT - 2025
- Para Summary
- The number of distinct integers $n$ for which $\log_{\left(\frac14\right)}(n^2 - 7n + 11)>0$ is:
- CAT - 2025
- Linear Inequalities
- In the set of consecutive odd numbers $\{1, 3, 5, \ldots, 57\}$, there is a number $k$ such that the sum of all the elements less than $k$ is equal to the sum of all the elements greater than $k$. Then, $k$ equals?
- CAT - 2025
- Number Systems
- The number of distinct pairs of integers $(x, y)$ satisfying the inequalities $x>y \ge 3$ and $x + y<14$ is:
- CAT - 2025
- Number Systems
For any natural number $k$, let $a_k = 3^k$. The smallest natural number $m$ for which \[ (a_1)^1 \times (a_2)^2 \times \dots \times (a_{20})^{20} \;<\; a_{21} \times a_{22} \times \dots \times a_{20+m} \] is:
- CAT - 2025
- Linear Inequalities