Question

Which of the following statements is not true concerning the time order of occurrence of variables?

• A. In an after-the-fact examination of the situation, we can never confidently rule out all other causal factors.
• B. The causing event must occur either before or simultaneously with the effect; it cannot occur afterwards.
• C. An effect cannot be produced by an event that occurs after the effect has taken place.
• D. It is possible for each event in a relationship to be both a cause and an effect of the other event.

Hint:

For causality, always check: cause comes before effect, and they cannot be each other’s cause simultaneously in research terms.

Answer 1

The Correct Option is D

Step 1: Causality requirement.
- In causality, the cause must precede the effect in time.
- An effect cannot precede its cause.
- Sometimes cause and effect may occur simultaneously (e.g., mutual causation in physics), but in research methodology, cause–effect reversal is not acceptable for causal inference.
Step 2: Identifying the false statement.
- (d) suggests mutual cause-effect for the same events, which contradicts the basic “time order” rule for establishing causality. \[ \boxed{(d)} \]