This uidity and situational dependence is uniquely human. In other species, in-group/outgroup distinctions re ect degrees of biological relatedness, or what evolutionary biologists call “kin selection.” Rodents distinguish between a sibling, a cousin, and a stranger by smell—xed, genetically determined pheromonal signatures—and adapt their cooperation accordingly. Those murderous groups of chimps are largely made up of brothers or cousins who grew up together and predominantly harm outsiders. Humans are plenty capable of kin-selective violence themselves, yet human group mentality is often utterly independent of such instinctual familial bonds. Most modern human societies rely instead on cultural kin selection, a process allowing people to feel closely related to what are, in a biological sense, total strangers. Often, this requires a highly active process of inculcation, with its attendant rituals and vocabularies. Consider military drills producing “bands of brothers,” unrelated college freshmen becoming sorority “sisters,” or the bygone value of welcoming immigrants into “the American family.” This malleable, rather than genetically xed, path of identity formation also drives people to adopt arbitrary markers that enable them to spot their cultural kin in an ocean of strangers—hence the importance various communities attach to ags, dress, or facial hair. The hipster beard, the turban, and the “Make America Great Again” hat all fulfill this role by sending strong signals of tribal belonging. Moreover, these cultural communities are arbitrary when compared to the relatively axed logic of biological kin selection. Few things show this arbitrariness better than the experience of immigrant families, where the randomness of a visa lottery can radically reshu e a child’s education, career opportunities, and cultural predilections. Had my grandparents and father missed the train out of Moscow that they instead barely made, maybe I’d be a chain smoking Russian academic rather than a Birkenstock-wearing American one, moved to tears by the heroism during the Battle of Stalingrad rather than that at Pearl Harbor. Scaled up from the level of individual family histories, our big-picture group identities—the national identities and cultural principles that structure our lives— are just as arbitrary and subject to the vagaries of history.
Based on the passage, how are rodents and humans similar to each other?
Show Hint
- Both rodents and humans divide the world between “us” and “them.”
- Both rodents and humans can reign their instincts.
- Both rodents and humans make their groups exclusive of brothers and cousins.
- Both rodents and humans are hostile towards outsiders.
- Both rodents and humans carry a genetically determined pheromonal signature.
The Correct Option is A
Approach Solution - 1
To determine how rodents and humans are similar based on the passage, let's examine the key points emphasized in the text.
The passage highlights how both rodents and humans have in-group and out-group distinctions:
- The passage discusses that rodents differentiate between their siblings, cousins, and strangers primarily through genetically determined pheromonal signatures. This division of the world is largely biological and instinctual.
- In humans, however, the distinction between "us" and "them" does not solely rely on biological family bonds. Instead, humans form these distinctions through cultural means, which can involve inculcation through rituals, vocabularies, and shared symbols.
- This concept is further substantiated by examples such as military drills creating "bands of brothers" or immigrant families adapting to new national identities.
Therefore, the similarity between rodents and humans described in the passage is that both species divide the world between “us” and “them,” although the bases for these divisions are different.
Thus, the correct answer is:
Both rodents and humans divide the world between “us” and “them.”
Let us now rule out the other options:
- Option: "Both rodents and humans can reign their instincts." - The passage does not discuss the ability of either species to control instincts.
- Option: "Both rodents and humans make their groups exclusive of brothers and cousins." - Although rodents form groups of brothers or cousins, the passage highlights human group formations as culturally constructed rather than inherently familial.
- Option: "Both rodents and humans are hostile towards outsiders." - While the passage mentions rodents being more likely to attack outsiders, the mention of humans reflects cultural diversity rather than hostility.
- Option: "Both rodents and humans carry a genetically determined pheromonal signature." - This is true for rodents but the passage specifies cultural identity formation in humans, not genetic.
In conclusion, the nuanced reading of the passage points towards the division between "us" and "them" as the core similarity, rendering the first option as the correct choice.
Approach Solution -2
Rodents rely on pheromonal signatures to distinguish between kin and strangers, thereby separating in-group vs out-group. Humans, though not bound by pheromones, also practice “kin-selective violence” and cultural kinship, dividing the world into “us” vs “them.”
Step 2: Evaluate options.
- Option A: Correct. Both species demonstrate an in-group/out-group mentality. - Option B: Incorrect — rodents act instinctively; humans may override, but not a shared similarity. - Option C: Wrong — rodents’ groups are made of kin; humans’ are arbitrary and cultural. - Option D: Partially true, but hostility was not emphasized as the key similarity. - Option E: Incorrect — only rodents have genetically determined pheromones.
Step 3: Conclusion.
The valid similarity is Option A.
Final Answer: \[ \boxed{\text{A}} \]
What does the author BEST mean when they say, “This fluidity and situational dependence is uniquely human?”
Show Hint
- Humans’ kin selection is not based on instinctual familial bonds while relating to strangers.
- Humans’ in-group/out-group thinking is influenced by their space and time.
- Humans use cognitive architecture to detect any potential cues about social coalitions and alliances.
- The implicit traits that humans associate with can change over time.
- Humans are uniquely progressive and ever evolving.
The Correct Option is B
Approach Solution - 1
To accurately determine what the author means by the phrase “This fluidity and situational dependence is uniquely human,” we need to analyze and understand the context provided in the passage. The passage discusses how humans distinguish between in-groups and out-groups not solely based on biological or instinctual bonds, like other species, but through cultural and situational factors.
- The passage contrasts human behavior with that of other species, such as rodents and chimpanzees, which rely on biological cues like pheromones or familial bonds to form group distinctions.
- Humans, on the other hand, construct group identities and distinctions through cultural processes that are flexible and can change based on circumstances and environments.
- The author provides examples of how cultural factors—such as military drills, sorority affiliations, and cultural symbols—formulate these social constructs and relationships through active social interaction rather than predetermined biological factors.
Therefore, when the author mentions "This fluidity and situational dependence," they stress that human social structures are influenced by time and place, shaping identity and group dynamics beyond fixed biological determinism.
Evaluating the provided options:
- The first option discusses humans' kin selection avoiding instinctual bonds, but this doesn't directly capture the essence of situational dependence discussed in the passage.
- The second option, "Humans’ in-group/out-group thinking is influenced by their space and time," aligns exactly with the given passage's discussion about the fluid nature of human cultural affiliations.
- The third option relates to cognitive architecture but focuses more on cognitive detection rather than fluidity and situational impacts.
- The fourth option about implicit traits changing over time doesn't directly address the unique situational and spatial elements the author emphasizes.
- The last option mentions overall human progressiveness, which is broader and not specific to the in-group/out-group discussion.
Thus, the best answer is: "Humans’ in-group/out-group thinking is influenced by their space and time." This reflects the passage's key points about the adaptability and contextual nature of human social structures.
Approach Solution -2
Unlike rodents, humans do not rely on fixed, genetic markers but on cultural kinship, which is malleable and changes depending on context, space, and historical period.
Step 2: Evaluate options.
- Option A: Partially true but narrower than the idea of “fluidity and situational dependence.” - Option B: Correct. The author emphasized that human in-group/out-group markers are situational, not fixed. - Option C: Over-technical, not directly stated in passage. - Option D: True but incomplete, since it’s not only traits but whole identity markers. - Option E: Too generic and vague.
Step 3: Conclusion.
Thus, the correct interpretation is Option B.
Final Answer: \[ \boxed{\text{B}} \]
What does the author BEST mean when they refer to the Battle of Stalingrad and Pearl Harbour?
Show Hint
- Our identities and emotional attachments are subject to erratic interpretation of history.
- Humans do not follow any specific logic when they develop association with a particular cultural community.
- Humans’ relationship with any specific place depends upon their lineage and ancestry.
- Humans’ interpretation of specific events depends on their emotional association with them.
- Humans are capable of selective violence towards each other.
The Correct Option is D
Approach Solution - 1
To provide a comprehensive understanding of the author's intent when referring to the Battle of Stalingrad and Pearl Harbor, we should analyze the context given in the comprehension passage. The passage discusses how human groups form identities that are culturally, rather than biologically, determined. This process involves creating emotional bonds and shared identities within groups that are not based on direct biological relationships.
Specifically, the passage articulates how cultural symbols and shared historical events or narratives contribute to group identity, explaining that people emotionally connect to events based on their cultural upbringing, rather than their biological heritage. In this context, the references to the Battle of Stalingrad and Pearl Harbor serve as examples of how such historical events elicit different emotional responses and identification depending on one's cultural background and personal history.
Now, let's evaluate the options to identify the correct answer:
- Our identities and emotional attachments are subject to erratic interpretation of history.- This option suggests inconsistency in how we perceive history, but the passage focuses more on the emotional aspect influenced by culture, not the erratic nature.
- Humans do not follow any specific logic when they develop an association with a particular cultural community.- This option implies randomness or lack of logic in associations, but the passage describes a specific cultural process involving emotional connections.
- Humans’ relationship with any specific place depends upon their lineage and ancestry.- This option contradicts the passage, which emphasizes cultural over biological factors in group relations.
- Humans’ interpretation of specific events depends on their emotional association with them.- This is the correct answer as it directly reflects the passage's argument that emotional associations, arising from cultural identity, shape how people perceive historical events like the Battle of Stalingrad and Pearl Harbor.
- Humans are capable of selective violence towards each other.- While related to group dynamics, this option does not address the author's main focus concerning cultural versus biological ties.
The correct interpretation, consistent with the passage's content, is that human perception of historical events is deeply influenced by their emotional connections, shaped by cultural identity rather than lineage.
Approach Solution -2
The author notes how their family background could have made them emotionally moved by Stalingrad rather than Pearl Harbor — showing that human associations with events are not absolute, but shaped by emotional and cultural attachments.
Step 2: Evaluate options.
- Option A: Too broad — it is not just “erratic interpretation of history.” - Option B: Overstates — humans follow cultural logics, not absence of logic. - Option C: Incorrect — not lineage, but emotional-cultural background. - Option D: Correct. Interpretation of historical events is shaped by subjective emotional ties. - Option E: Irrelevant to this example.
Step 3: Conclusion.
Therefore, the meaning is best captured by Option D.
Final Answer: \[ \boxed{\text{D}} \]
Top Questions on Reading Comprehension
- The advent of social media has dramatically transformed the way individuals consume and share information. In earlier times, people largely depended on newspapers, radio, or television as their primary sources of knowledge about the world. These were institutions that followed established editorial practices and fact-checking processes. With the rise of digital platforms, however, the traditional ‘gatekeepers’ of information have been bypassed. Today, anyone with internet access can create content, express an opinion, or broadcast an idea to a global audience within seconds.
This shift has certainly democratized access and given voice to communities and individuals who were often ignored by mainstream media. Yet, this democratization comes with challenges. Alongside genuine voices, social media has also amplified misinformation, rumours, and half-truths. Unlike traditional journalism, where accountability and verification are built into the system, social media thrives on speed, virality, and emotion. A misleading headline, a misinterpreted statistic, or even a doctored image can travel across the world before fact-checkers have the chance to intervene.
The consequences of such unchecked information can be serious, ranging from the spread of fear and panic to the manipulation of public opinion. The impact of this transformation extends beyond individual users to institutions and democracies. Political campaigns, corporate branding, and even social movements are now shaped by algorithms that decide what people see and when they see it. These algorithms prioritize engagement, often promoting content that provokes stronger emotional reactions rather than balanced analysis.
As a result, echo chambers form, online spaces where people are repeatedly exposed to opinions that mirror their own, reinforcing biases and reducing openness to differing perspectives. This has contributed to increasing polarization in societies across the world. Moreover, the competition for attention has blurred the line between information and entertainment, leading to the rise of sensationalism even in serious public discourse. The credibility of expertise too has been undermined, as opinions from unverified sources are often placed on the same footing as evidence-based knowledge.
In response, several governments and technology companies are exploring ways to promote digital literacy, enhance transparency in algorithms, and strengthen fact-checking collaborations. Ultimately, the challenge lies in balancing the openness of digital spaces with mechanisms that ensure responsibility and trustworthiness in public communication.- AILET BALLB (Hons.) - 2026
- English
- Reading Comprehension
- I have still to be brother to a Prince, though I once came near to kinship with what might have been a veritable King, and was promised the reversion of a Kingdom, army, law-courts, revenue, and policy, all complete. But, today, I greatly fear that my King is dead, and if I want a crown I must go and hunt it for myself. The beginning of everything was in a railway train upon the road to Mhow from Ajmir. There had been a deficit in the Budget, which necessitated travelling, not Second class, which is only half as dear as First class, but by Intermediate, which is very awful indeed. There are no cushions in the Intermediate class, and the population is either Intermediate, which is Eurasian, or native, which for a long night journey is nasty; or Loafer, which is amusing though intoxicated. Intermediates do not patronize refreshment rooms. They carry their food in bundles and pots, and buy sweets from the native sweet meat sellers, and drink the roadside water. That is why in the hot weather Intermediates are taken out of the carriages dead, and in all weathers are most properly looked down upon.
My particular Intermediate happened to be empty till I reached Nasirabad, when a huge gentleman in shirt sleeves entered, and following the custom of Intermediates, passed the time of day. He was a wanderer and a vagabond like myself, but with an educated taste for alcohol. He told daring tales of things he had seen and done, of out-of-the-way corners of the Empire into which he had penetrated, and of adventures in which he risked his life for a few days’ food. “If India was filled with men like you and me, not knowing more than the crows where they’d get their next day’s rations, it isn’t seventy millions of revenue the land would be paying, it’s seven hundred millions,” said he; and as I looked at his mouth and chin I was disposed to agree with him.
We talked politics, the politics of Loaferdom that sees things from the underside where the lath and plaster is not smoothed off, and we talked postal arrangements because my friend wanted to send a telegram back from the next station to Ajmir, which is the turning off place from the Bombay to the Mhow line as you travel westward. He had the air of one who had seen strange countries and stranger men, yet bore himself without vanity. There was a restless light in his eyes, the sort that belongs to men who have lived too long without a fixed purpose. When he spoke of the Empire, it was not with loyalty nor with bitterness, but with the detached amusement of one who has played his part and lost interest in the game. His laughter came easily, though it seemed to echo from some remembered hardship. It struck me then that his stories were less of adventure than of survival.- AILET BALLB (Hons.) - 2026
- English
- Reading Comprehension
Democracy, often hailed as the most equitable form of governance, is a system where power ultimately rests in the hands of the people. The word derives from the Greek words ”demos” meaning people and ”kratos” meaning power or rule. Democracy aims to provide equal political participation and protect the individual freedoms of all citizens. However, while the idea of democracy is simple, its practice is frequently complex and fraught with challenges. At its core, democracy functions on the principle of majority rule, yet it simultaneously guarantees the protection of minority rights.
This balance ensures that while the majority has the power to make decisions through voting, the fundamental rights of minorities are not trampled upon. Such a system requires consistent vigilance and respect for the rule of law. Without these, democracies can devolve into majoritarian tyranny or authoritarianism. The practice of democracy is not merely limited to voting in elections. It encompasses freedom of speech, an independent judiciary, free press, and protection of individual rights. These elements together create a political environment where citizens can express dissent, hold leaders accountable, and participate actively in decision-making. When any component is weakened, the democratic process becomes vulnerable.
In recent times, democratic societies worldwide have grappled with new challenges. The rise of misinformation and fake news has eroded public trust in institutions and polarized societies. Social media platforms, meant to facilitate communication, have sometimes amplified divisive narratives and falsehoods. This has resulted in voter manipulation and a growing skepticism toward democratic processes. Literacy in media and critical thinking is increasingly vital to safeguard democracy from such threats. Economic inequality poses another significant challenge. While democracy promises equal rights politically, vast disparities in wealth and opportunity undermine this ideal.
This phenomenon raises questions about whether democracy is achievable without addressing socioeconomic inequalities. Furthermore, the involvement of citizens is crucial. Democracy requires that people are informed, engaged, and willing to participate beyond casting votes. Civic education and awareness campaigns play an essential role in nurturing responsible citizenship. Apathy or disengagement weakens the democratic fabric, opening avenues for corruption and other dangers to the system. In conclusion, democracy thrives on the collective responsibility of governments and citizens to protect its pillars and ensure inclusive, fair governance.- AILET BALLB (Hons.) - 2026
- English
- Reading Comprehension
The Rule of Law
by Tom BinghamJustice: What’s the Right Thing to Do?
by Michael J. SandelLetters to a Law Student
by Nicholas J. McBrideIn The Rule of Law, former Lord Chief Justice Tom Bingham explores how the principle of legality underpins modern democratic life. He defines the rule of law as more than just adherence to formal rules; it is the assurance that power is exercised within clear, fair, and publicly known boundaries.
Bingham distills the concept into eight principles, including equality before the law, access to justice, and respect for fundamental human rights. Drawing on cases and historical examples, he warns that national security and administrative efficiency must never override the rights of individuals.
The book bridges legal philosophy and practice, arguing that law must be both predictable and humane. For Bingham, the rule of law represents a moral ideal, one that sustains public trust in justice and curbs arbitrary governance.Michael Sandel’s Justice: What’s the Right Thing to Do? examines moral reasoning in law and politics. Through examples like price gouging, affirmative action, and taxation, Sandel invites readers to explore competing notions of fairness.
He engages with philosophical traditions such as utilitarianism, libertarianism, and Rawlsian egalitarianism, showing that questions of justice cannot be separated from questions of virtue and the common good.
Sandel rejects the idea of a morally “neutral” legal system, arguing that public deliberation about values is essential to democracy. Ultimately, he argues that a just society is one that cultivates civic responsibility, not merely individual rights.Nicholas McBride’s Letters to a Law Student is a practical and reflective guide for aspiring lawyers. Written as a series of letters to a student beginning law school, it explores what legal study truly involves.
This includes mastering case analysis, understanding precedents, and developing critical reasoning. McBride distinguishes between knowing the law and thinking like a lawyer, the latter requiring analytical discipline and ethical awareness.
He emphasizes that good lawyers combine intellectual rigor with moral judgment and clarity of expression. Beyond academic success, the book urges students to reflect on law’s purpose, balancing order, justice, and compassion in human affairs.- AILET BALLB (Hons.) - 2026
- English
- Reading Comprehension
Urban gardening has become increasingly popular as a means to address food security, sustainability, and mental well-being in cities. By growing their own fruits, vegetables, and herbs, individuals can reduce their reliance on commercial supply chains that contribute to extensive transportation, energy consumption, and synthetic chemical use. In addition to providing fresh, nutritious food, urban gardening also contributes to environmental sustainability by mitigating urban heat island effects, improving air quality, and managing water runoff. Furthermore, it offers psychological benefits, including reduced stress, improved mood, and a sense of accomplishment. Despite its many benefits, urban gardening faces challenges like space limitations, poor soil quality, and inadequate sunlight, which gardeners overcome using innovative techniques such as vertical farming and hydroponics.
- AILET BALLB (Hons.) - 2026
- English
- Reading Comprehension
Questions Asked in XAT exam
- Arun selected an integer \( x \) between 2 and 40, both inclusive. He noticed that the greatest common divisor of the selected integer \( x \) and any other integer between 2 and 40, both inclusive, is 1. How many different choices for such an \( x \) are possible?
- XAT - 2025
- Number Systems
- ABCD is a rectangle where points C and D have coordinates (−2, 0) and (2, 0), respectively. If the area of the rectangle is 24, what is the best way to describe the equation of the line AB?
- XAT - 2025
- Geometry
- Adu and Amu have bought two pieces of land on the Moon from an e-store. Both the pieces of land have the same perimeters, but Adu’s piece of land is in the shape of a square, while Amu’s piece of land is in the shape of a circle. The ratio of the areas of Adu’s piece of land to Amu’s piece of land is:
- XAT - 2025
- Mensuration
- A and B bought lands on the Moon from an eStore, both with the same diameter but A’s land is square-shaped, and B’s land is circular. What is the ratio of the areas of their respective lands?
- XAT - 2025
- Ratio and Proportion
- A bought a phone from a store and paid \(\frac{1}{6}\) of the price using UPI, \(\frac{1}{3}\) of the price in cash, and the remaining balance a year later. He also paid 10% interest on the remaining balance after one year. What was the original price of the phone?
- XAT - 2025
- Percentage