In 2006, the Met [art museum in the US] agreed to return the Euphronios krater, a masterpiece Greek urn that had been a museum draw since 1972. In 2007, the Getty [art museum in the US] agreed to return 40 objects to Italy, including a marble Aphrodite, in the midst of looting scandals. And in December, Sotheby's and a private owner agreed to return an ancient Khmer statue of a warrior, pulled from auction two years before, to Cambodia.
Cultural property, or patrimony, laws limit the transfer of cultural property outside the source country's territory, including outright export prohibitions and national ownership laws. Most art historians, archaeologists, museum officials and policymakers portray cultural property laws in general as invaluable tools for counteracting the ugly legacy of Western cultural imperialism.
During the late th 19 and early th 20 century - an era former Met director Thomas Hoving called "the age of piracy" - American and European art museums acquired antiquities by hook or by crook, from grave robbers or souvenir collectors, bounty from digs and ancient sites in impoverished but art-rich source countries. Patrimony laws were intended to protect future archaeological discoveries against Western imperialist designs. ...
I surveyed 90 countries with one or more archaeological sites on UNESCO's World Heritage Site list, and my study shows that in most cases the number of discovered sites diminishes sharply after a country passes a cultural property law. There are 222 archaeological sites listed for those 90 countries. When you look into the history of the sites, you see that all but 21 were discovered before the passage of cultural property laws. ... Strict cultural patrimony laws are popular in most countries. But the downside may be that they reduce incentives for foreign governments, nongovernmental organizations and educational institutions to invest in overseas exploration because their efforts will not necessarily be rewarded by opportunities to hold, display and study what is uncovered. To the extent that source countries can fund their own archaeological projects, artifacts and sites may still be discovered. . . . The survey has far-reaching implications. It suggests that source countries, particularly in the developing world, should narrow their cultural property laws so that they can reap the benefits of new archaeological discoveries, which typically increase tourism and enhance cultural pride. This does not mean these nations should abolish restrictions on foreign excavation and foreign claims to artifacts.
China provides an interesting alternative approach for source nations eager for foreign archaeological investment. From 1935 to 2003, China had a restrictive cultural property law that prohibited foreign ownership of Chinese cultural artifacts. In those years, China's most significant archaeological discovery occurred by chance, in 1974, when peasant farmers accidentally uncovered ranks of buried terra cotta warriors, which are part of Emperor Qin's spectacular tomb system.
In 2003, the Chinese government switched course, dropping its cultural property law and embracing collaborative international archaeological research. Since then, China has nominated 11 archaeological sites for inclusion in the World Heritage Site list, including eight in 2013, the most ever for China.
Which one of the following statements best expresses the paradox of patrimony laws?
- They were intended to protect cultural property, but instead resulted in the neglect of historical sites.
- They were aimed at protecting cultural property, but instead reduced business for auctioneers like Sotheby's.
- They were aimed at protecting cultural property, but instead reduced new archaeological discoveries.
- They were intended to protect cultural property, but instead resulted in the withholding of national treasure from museums.
The Correct Option is C
Solution and Explanation
The paradox of patrimony laws, as discussed in the passage, lies in the contrast between their intended purpose and their actual outcome. These laws were enacted to safeguard a nation's cultural heritage by preventing artifacts from being removed and held abroad. However, the passage highlights that such protective measures have led to an unintended decline in archaeological exploration, especially by foreign institutions.
Since these laws make it difficult for external organizations to retain or display discovered artifacts, they discourage investment and participation in excavations. As a result, fewer new sites are unearthed, undermining the very goal of preserving and understanding cultural history.
Best expression of the paradox: They were aimed at protecting cultural property, but instead reduced new archaeological discoveries.
It can be inferred from the passage that archaeological sites are considered important by some source countries because they:
- are a symbol of Western imperialism.
- generate funds for future discoveries.
- give a boost to the tourism sector.
- are subject to strict patrimony laws.
The Correct Option is C
Solution and Explanation
The passage indicates that archaeological sites hold value for source countries not only for their cultural and historical significance but also due to their economic and societal benefits. Specifically, the text states that countries should consider modifying strict cultural property laws so they can “reap the benefits of new archaeological discoveries, which typically increase tourism and enhance cultural pride.”
This clearly shows that archaeological sites are viewed as a means to attract tourism and boost national pride. Therefore, it can be inferred that some source countries see these sites as important because they give a boost to the tourism sector.
Correct inference: Archaeological sites are considered important by some source countries because they give a boost to the tourism sector.
From the passage we can infer that the author is likely to advise poor, but archaeologically rich source countries to do all of the following, EXCEPT:
- to find ways to motivate other countries to finance archaeological explorations in their country.
- adopt China's strategy of dropping its cultural property laws and carrying out archaeological research through international collaboration.
- allow foreign countries to analyse and exhibit the archaeological finds made in the source country.
- fund institutes in other countries to undertake archaeological exploration in the source country reaping the benefits of cutting-edge techniques.
The Correct Option is D
Solution and Explanation
Option A: The author acknowledges that strict cultural property laws may deter foreign funding of archaeological expeditions. Hence, it is logical that the author would support efforts to persuade international organizations to continue funding such research in source countries.
Option B: The passage presents China as a successful example of transitioning from strict regulation to international collaboration, which resulted in more archaeological discoveries. Thus, this is a valid and supported suggestion.
Option C: The text supports global cooperation in archaeology and implies that allowing foreign examination and exhibition of artifacts can be beneficial. This aligns with the author's concerns about the restrictive nature of cultural property rules.
Option D: Although the passage promotes international collaboration, it does not support the idea that outsourcing research to foreign nations (i.e., conducting research entirely outside the source country) is beneficial. Rather, the author argues for collaborative work within the nation of origin. Thus, Option D is not consistent with the author's likely recommendations.
Therefore, the correct answer is: Option D — it is not a suggestion the author would likely support.
Which one of the following statements, if true, would undermine the central idea of the passage?
- Museums established in economically deprived archaeologically-rich source countries can display the antiques discovered there.
- Affluent archaeologically-rich source countries can afford to carry out their own excavations.
- Western countries will have to apologise to countries for looting their cultural property in the past century.
- UNESCO finances archaeological research in poor, but archaeologically-rich source countries.
The Correct Option is D
Solution and Explanation
The passage argues that strict rules protecting cultural property—while well-intentioned and widely supported—could reduce the willingness of international organizations to fund archaeological research abroad. This, in turn, might negatively affect discoveries, tourism, and national pride in the source countries.
Option D challenges this reasoning by suggesting that external financial support continues despite the rules, thereby weakening the link between regulation and decreased funding. If true, this implies that the lack of archaeological discoveries might be due to other unrelated factors not considered by the author.
Therefore, the correct answer is: Option D — it introduces an alternative explanation that counters the passage’s main point.
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