Many human phenomena and characteristics - such as behaviors, beliefs, economies, genes, incomes, life expectancies, and other things - are influenced both by geographic factors and by non-geographic factors. Geographic factors mean physical and biological factors tied to geographic location, including climate, the distributions of wild plant and animal species, soils, and topography. Non-geographic factors include those factors subsumed under the term culture, other factors subsumed under the term history, and decisions by individual people.... [T]he differences between the current economies of North and South Korea ... cannot be attributed to the modest environmental differences between [them] ... They are instead due entirely to the different [government] policies ... At the opposite extreme, the Inuit and other traditional peoples living north of the Arctic Circle developed warm fur clothes but no agriculture, while equatorial lowland peoples around the world never developed warm fur clothes but often did develop agriculture. The explanation is straightforwardly geographic, rather than a cultural or historical quirk unrelated to geography. . . Aboriginal Australia remained the sole continent occupied only by hunter/gatherers and with no indigenous farming or herding ... [Here the] explanation is biogeographic: the Australian continent has no domesticable native animal species and few domesticable native plant species. Instead, the crops and domestic animals that now make Australia a food and wool exporter are all nonnative (mainly Eurasian) species such as sheep, wheat, and grapes, brought to Australia by overseas colonists.
Today, no scholar would be silly enough to deny that culture, history, and individual choices play a big role in many human phenomena. Scholars don't react to cultural, historical, and individual-agent explanations by denouncing "cultural determinism," "historical determinism," or "individual determinism," and then thinking no further. But many scholars do react to any explanation invoking some geographic role, by denouncing "geographic determinism" ... Several reasons may underlie this widespread but nonsensical view. One reason is that some geographic explanations advanced a century ago were racist, thereby causing all geographic explanations to become tainted by racist associations in the minds of many scholars other than geographers. But many genetic, historical, psychological, and anthropological explanations advanced a century ago were also racist, yet the validity of newer non-racist genetic etc. explanations is widely accepted today. Another reason for reflex rejection of geographic explanations is that historians have a tradition, in their discipline, of stressing the role of contingency (a favorite word among historians) based on individual decisions and chance. Often that view is warranted . . . But often, too, that view is unwarranted. The development of warm fur clothes among the Inuit living north of the Arctic Circle was not because one influential Inuit leader persuaded other Inuit in 1783 to adopt warm fur clothes, for no good environmental reason. A third reason is that geographic explanations usually depend on detailed technical facts of geography and other fields of scholarship ... Most historians and economists don't acquire that detailed knowledge as part of the professional training.
The examples of the Inuit and Aboriginal Australians are offered in the passage to show:
- that despite geographical isolation, traditional societies were self-sufficient and adaptive.
- how physical circumstances can dictate human behaviour and cultures.
- how environmental factors lead to comparatively divergent paths in livelihoods and development.
- human resourcefulness across cultures in adapting to their surroundings.
The Correct Option is B
Solution and Explanation
Option B is the correct choice since the passage uses examples such as those of the Inuit and Aboriginal Australians to demonstrate how physical conditions, notably environmental factors, shape human behavior and cultural norms. The narrative delves into the emergence of insulated fur attire among the Inuit due to Arctic conditions and the absence of indigenous agriculture in Aboriginal Australia owing to the dearth of domesticable local species. These instances underscore how physical conditions wield influence over certain facets of human conduct and mold cultural adjustments. Consequently, Option B accurately captures the main idea conveyed by the examples provided in the passage.
Option D lacks explicit emphasis within the passage, which concentrates more on the impact of environmental factors on behavior and cultures.
Option A: The passage does not expressly address self-sufficiency but rather elucidates the influence of specific environmental factors on societal development.
Option C is not entirely erroneous, yet Option B more precisely captures the focus on physical conditions shaping human behavior and cultures within the framework of the provided examples.
Correct Answer: Option B: how physical circumstances can dictate human behaviour and cultures.
All of the following can be inferred from the passage EXCEPT:
- several academic studies of human phenomena in the past involved racist interpretations.
- agricultural practices changed drastically in the Australian continent after it was colonised.
- individual dictat and contingency were not the causal factors for the use of fur clothing in some very cold climates
- while most human phenomena result from culture and individual choice, some have biogeographic origins.
The Correct Option is D
Solution and Explanation
Option A: The author notes that certain geographical explanations proposed a century ago carried racial undertones, leading to a tarnishing of all geographical theories by association with racism in the eyes of many scholars.
Option B: The author analyzes the present state of agricultural methodologies in Australia, highlighting that the agricultural produce and livestock contributing to Australia's status as a food and wool exporter today primarily comprise non-native species (predominantly Eurasian) introduced to the continent by foreign settlers. The usage of "non-native" suggests a departure in agricultural practices from the original flora and fauna indigenous to Australia.
Option C: The author examines the evolution of insulated fur garments among the Inuit populace residing north of the Arctic Circle, attributing it not to a specific individual decision or historical circumstance in 1783, but rather as a reaction to environmental stimuli.
Option D: This cannot be directly extrapolated from the passage. While the text delves into the impact of both geographical elements (such as biogeography) and non-geographical factors (including culture, history, and individual decisions) on human phenomena, it does not explicitly quantify or compare the predominance of these influences by asserting that "most human phenomena stem from culture and individual choice."
Correct Answer: Option C
All of the following are advanced by the author as reasons why non-geographers disregard geographic influences on human phenomena EXCEPT their:
- belief in the central role of humans, unrelated to physical surroundings, in influencing phenomena.
- dismissal of explanations that involve geographical causes for human behaviour.
- lingering impressions of past geographic analyses that were politically offensive.
- disciplinary training which typically does not include technical knowledge of geography
The Correct Option is B
Solution and Explanation
Option B is not explicitly presented by the author as a rationale for the dismissal of geographic influences by non-geographers. The author implies that scholars often react unfavorably to explanations involving geography by condemning "geographic determinism." However, the specific notion of dismissal is not overtly articulated in the passage.
On the other hand, the remaining options can be inferred from the text:
Option A can be inferred from the following passage: "Another reason for reflex rejection of geographic explanations is that historians have a tradition, in their discipline, of stressing the role of contingency (a favorite word among historians) based on individual decisions and chance."
Option C can be deduced from the following excerpt: "One reason is that some geographic explanations advanced a century ago were racist, thereby causing all geographic explanations to become tainted."
Option D can be derived from the concluding paragraph of the passage: "Geographic explanations usually depend on detailed technical facts of geography and other fields of scholarship... Most historians and economists don't acquire that detailed knowledge as part of the professional training."
So, the correct option is (B): dismissal of explanations that involve geographical causes for human behaviour.
The author criticises scholars who are not geographers for all of the following reasons EXCEPT:
- the importance they place on the role of individual decisions when studying human phenomena.
- their outdated interpretations of past cultural and historical phenomena.
- their labelling of geographic explanations as deterministic.
- their rejection of the role of biogeographic factors in social and cultural phenomena.
The Correct Option is B
Solution and Explanation
- Option 1: the importance they place on the role of individual decisions when studying human phenomena.The author criticizes non-geographers for emphasizing individual decisions and chance too much. The passage mentions historians' traditional focus on contingency based on individual decisions, which is sometimes unwarranted.
- Option 2: their outdated interpretations of past cultural and historical phenomena.This option is the correct answer because the passage does not specify that non-geographers hold outdated views on cultural and historical phenomena. The criticism in the passage focuses on their response to geographic explanations, not their interpretation of past phenomena.
- Option 3: their labelling of geographic explanations as deterministic.The author criticizes scholars for unfairly labeling geographic explanations as determinism, while not doing the same for cultural, historical, or individual-agent explanations.
- Option 4: their rejection of the role of biogeographic factors in social and cultural phenomena.The passage criticizes scholars for reflexively rejecting geographic explanations, including biogeographic factors.
Top Questions on Reading Comprehension
- Shown below are letters ‘e’ taken from four popular logos, arranged in a sequence. Which of the options is the correct sequence?
- UCEED - 2026
- English Language Comprehension
- Reading Comprehension
- Shown below are four options, each showing consecutive frames representing the movement of a pendulum of an old-style wall clock for an animation movie. Which is the correct option?
- UCEED - 2026
- English Language Comprehension
- Reading Comprehension
- Acrucial moderating factor in how people experience comparisons is self-esteem. Individuals with high self-esteem are more likely to interpret upward comparison as informative rather than threatening. They are more resilient in the face of others’ success and more likely to believe they can reach their own goals. In contrast, people with low self-esteem are more prone to interpret comparison as judgment, reinforcing negative self-views and triggering feelings of inadequacy.
This dynamic creates a self-reinforcing loop. People with high self-esteem are less vulnerable to upward comparison, which intensifies those doubts. Those with a secure sense of self are more likely to use comparison as a learning tool. The same external stimulus—a colleague’s achievements, a friend’s popularity—can have radically different effects depending on internal stability.
Self-esteem also influences how people choose their comparison targets. Research has found that individuals often engage in “selective comparison,” seeking out those who confirm their existing beliefs about themselves. This can become a subtle form of self-sabotage. Someone who feels unworthy may subconsciously seek out targets that reinforce that sense, perpetuating a narrative of inferiority. One of the most promising antidotes to social comparison is temporal comparison—evaluating oneself not against others, but against one’s own past. This method has been shown to increase motivation and satisfaction, especially when individuals can see concrete progress. Temporal comparison activates the same reward circuits as social comparison but avoids the threat systems associated with social ranking. It also reinforces agency: individuals focus on what they can control and improve rather than what others control. In therapeutic and coaching settings, temporal comparison is used to help clients build self-efficacy and track growth over time.
Moreover, people who focus on self-improvement rather than social dominance are less likely to fall into cycles of envy or self-pity. They can still use others as inspiration, but they do so without attaching their self-worth to the outcome. This is not to say they never compare—but that they focus on learning, rather than judgment. The most skilful approach to comparison may lie in eliminating it, but in reframing it as feedback. When we interpret comparison as information rather than a verdict, we can ask, “What can I learn from this?” This shift turns comparison into a growth tool. Teachers mentor their students, not as rivals. Psychologists emphasize that the key variable here is mindset.
A fixed mindset sees comparison as a threat. If someone else is better, it means we are worse. A growth mindset sees comparison as a map. If someone else has reached a certain level, it means the path exists. This reframing is not just a cognitive trick. It changes the emotional tone of comparison, making it more likely to inspire than to wound. Reframing also requires emotional regulation—the ability to notice an initial pang of envy or shame without reacting impulsively. With practice, individuals can learn to pause, reflect, and reinterpret their emotional responses. Over time, this builds resilience and self-trust, allowing comparison to become a learning tool rather than a cage.- XAT - 2026
- Verbal and Logical Ability
- Reading Comprehension
When people who are talking don’t share the same culture, knowledge, values, and assumptions, mutual understanding can be especially difficult. Such understanding is possible through the negotiation of meaning. To negotiate meaning with someone, you have to become aware of and respect both the differences in your backgrounds and when these differences are important. You need enough diversity of cultural and personal experience to be aware that divergent world views exist and what they might be like. You also need the flexibility in world view, and a generous tolerance for mistakes, as well as a talent for finding the right metaphor to communicate the relevant parts of unshared experiences or to highlight the shared experiences while demphasizing the others. Metaphorical imagination is a crucial skill in creating rapport and in communicating the nature of unshared experience. This skill consists, in large measure, of the ability to bend your world view and adjust the way you categorize your experiences. Problems of mutual understanding are not exotic; they arise in all extended conversations where understanding is important.
When it really counts, meaning is almost never communicated according to the CONDUIT metaphor, that is, where one person transmits a fixed, clear proposition to another by means of expressions in a common language, where both parties have all the relevant common knowledge, assumptions, values, etc. When the chips are down, meaning is negotiated: you slowly figure out what you have in common, what it is safe to talk about, how you can communicate unshared experience or create a shared vision. With enough flexibility in bending your world view and with luck and charity, you may achieve some mutual understanding.
Communication theories based on the CONDUIT metaphor turn from the pathetic to the evil when they are applied indiscriminately on a large scale, say, in government surveillance or computerized files. There, what is most crucial for real understanding is almost never included, and it is assumed that the words in the file have meaning in themselves—disembodied, objective, understandable meaning. When a society lives by the CONDUITmetaphor on a large scale, misunderstanding, persecution, and much worse are the likely products.- XAT - 2026
- Verbal and Logical Ability
- Reading Comprehension
Later, I realized that reviewing the history of nuclear physics served another purpose as well: It gave the lie to the naive belief that the physicists could have come together when nuclear fission was discovered (in Nazi Germany!) and agreed to keep the discovery a secret, thereby sparing humanity such a burden. No. Given the development of nuclear physics up to 1938, development that physicists throughout the world pursued in all innocence of any intention of finding the engine of a new weapon of mass destruction—only one of them, the remarkable Hungarian physicist Leo Szilard, took that possibility seriously—the discovery of nuclear fission was inevitable. To stop it, you would have had to stop physics. If German scientists hadn’t made the discovery when they did, French, American, Russian, Italian, or Danish scientists would have done so, almost certainly within days or weeks. They were all working at the same cutting edge, trying to understand the strange results of a simple experiment bombarding uranium with neutrons. Here was no Faustian bargain, as movie directors and other naifs still find it intellectually challenging to imagine. Here was no evil machinery that the noble scientists might hide from the problems and the generals. To the contrary, there was a high insight into how the world works, an energetic reaction, older than the earth, that science had finally devised the instruments and arrangements to coart forth. “Make it seem inevitable,” Louis Pasteur used to advise his students when they prepared to write up their discoveries. But it was. To wish that it might have been ignored or suppressed is barbarous. “Knowledge,” Niels Bohr once noted, “is itself the basis for civilization.” You cannot have the one without the other; the one depends upon the other. Nor can you have only benevolent knowledge; the scientific method doesn’t filter for benevolence. Knowledge has consequences, not always intended, not always comfortable, but always welcome. The earth revolves around the sun, not the sun around the earth. “It is a profound and necessary truth,” Robert Oppenheimer would say, “that the deep things in science are not found because they are useful; they are found because it was possible to find them.”
...Bohr proposed once that the goal of science is not universal truth. Rather, he argued, the modest but relentless goal of science is “the gradual removal of prejudices.” The discovery that the earth revolves around the sun has gradually removed the prejudice that the earth is the center of the universe. The discovery of microbes is gradually removing the prejudice that disease is a punishment from God. The discovery of evolution is gradually removing the prejudice that Homo sapiens is a separate and special creation.- XAT - 2026
- Verbal and Logical Ability
- Reading Comprehension
Questions Asked in CAT exam
- The passage given below is followed by four summaries. Choose the option that best captures the essence of the passage.
In the dynamic realm of creativity, artists often find themselves at the crossroads between drawing inspiration from diverse cultures and inadvertently crossing into the territory of cultural appropriation. Inspiration is the lifeblood of creativity, driving artists to create works that resonate across borders. In a globalized era of the modern world, artists draw from a vast array of cultural influences. When approached respectfully, inspiration becomes a bridge, fostering understanding and appreciation of cultural diversity. However, the line between inspiration and cultural appropriation can be thin and easily blurred.
Cultural appropriation occurs when elements from a particular culture are borrowed without proper understanding, respect, or acknowledgment. This leads to the commodification of sacred symbols, the reinforcement of stereotypes, and the erasure of the cultural context from which these elements originated. It is essential to recognize that the impact of cultural appropriation extends beyond the realm of artistic expression, influencing societal perceptions and perpetuating power imbalances.- CAT - 2025
- Para Summary
- The number of distinct integers $n$ for which $\log_{\left(\frac14\right)}(n^2 - 7n + 11)>0$ is:
- CAT - 2025
- Linear Inequalities
- In the set of consecutive odd numbers $\{1, 3, 5, \ldots, 57\}$, there is a number $k$ such that the sum of all the elements less than $k$ is equal to the sum of all the elements greater than $k$. Then, $k$ equals?
- CAT - 2025
- Number Systems
- The number of distinct pairs of integers $(x, y)$ satisfying the inequalities $x>y \ge 3$ and $x + y<14$ is:
- CAT - 2025
- Number Systems
For any natural number $k$, let $a_k = 3^k$. The smallest natural number $m$ for which \[ (a_1)^1 \times (a_2)^2 \times \dots \times (a_{20})^{20} \;<\; a_{21} \times a_{22} \times \dots \times a_{20+m} \] is:
- CAT - 2025
- Linear Inequalities