Although one of the most contested concepts in political philosophy, human nature is something on which most people seem to agree. By and large, according to Rutger Bregman in his new book Humankind, we have a rather pessimistic view – not of ourselves exactly, but of everyone else. We see other people as selfish, untrustworthy and dangerous and therefore we behave towards them with defensiveness and suspicion. This was how the 17th-century philosopher Thomas Hobbes conceived our natural state to be, believing that all that stood between us and violent anarchy was a strong state and firm leadership.
But in following Hobbes, argues Bregman, we ensure that the negative view we have of human nature is reflected back at us. He instead puts his faith in Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the 18th-century French thinker, who famously declared that man was born free and it was civilisation – with its coercive powers, social classes and restrictive laws – that put him in chains.
Hobbes and Rousseau are seen as the two poles of the human nature argument and it’s no surprise that Bregman strongly sides with the Frenchman. He takes Rousseau’s intuition and paints a picture of a prelapsarian idyll in which, for the better part of 300,000 years, Homo sapiens lived a fulfilling life in harmony with nature . . . Then we discovered agriculture and for the next 10,000 years it was all property, war, greed and injustice. . . .
It was abandoning our nomadic lifestyle and then domesticating animals, says Bregman, that brought about infectious diseases such as measles, smallpox, tuberculosis, syphilis, malaria, cholera and plague. This may be true, but what Bregman never really seems to get to grips with is that pathogens were not the only things that grew with agriculture – so did the number of humans. It’s one thing to maintain friendly relations and a property-less mode of living when you’re 30 or 40 hunter-gatherers following the food. But life becomes a great deal more complex and knowledge far more extensive when there are settlements of many thousands.
“Civilisation has become synonymous with peace and progress and wilderness with war and decline,” writes Bregman. “In reality, for most of human existence, it was the other way around.” Whereas traditional history depicts the collapse of civilisations as “dark ages” in which everything gets worse, modern scholars, he claims, see them more as a reprieve, in which the enslaved gain their freedom and culture flourishes. Like much else in this book, the truth is probably somewhere between the two stated positions.
In any case, the fear of civilisational collapse, Bregman believes, is unfounded. It’s the result of what the Dutch biologist Frans de Waal calls “veneer theory” – the idea that just below the surface, our bestial nature is waiting to break out. . . . There’s a great deal of reassuring human decency to be taken from this bold and thought-provoking book and a wealth of evidence in support of the contention that the sense of who we are as a species has been deleteriously distorted. But it seems equally misleading to offer the false choice of Rousseau and Hobbes when, clearly, humanity encompasses both.
According to the author, the main reason why Bregman contrasts life in preagricultural societies with agricultural societies is to:
- bolster his argument that people are basically decent, but progress as we know it can make them selfish.
- make the argument that an environmentally conscious lifestyle is a more harmonious way of living.
- highlight the enormous impact that settled farming had on population growth.
- advocate the promotion of less complex societies as a basis for greater security and prosperity.
The Correct Option is A
Solution and Explanation
Bregman opposes Hobbes' belief in humans' inherent selfishness or savagery and aligns himself with Rousseau instead. He argues that negative or undesirable circumstances are the result of civilizational progress stemming from the post-agricultural era. In support of this argument, he contrasts pre-agricultural and post-agricultural societies, portraying the nomadic lifestyle as an "unspoiled paradise" while depicting the discovery of agriculture as a regrettable event. This portrayal enhances his assertion that humans are fundamentally good, but societal progress can lead them to selfishness. Option A is the correct choice.
Option B: The environment is not the primary focus of the discussion, so this option can also be discarded.
Option C: This option veers off into discussing the impact of settled farming on population growth, which is not directly relevant to the main argument. Therefore, it can be eliminated.
Option D: Complexity is not the central focus of the discussion, so this option can be dismissed.
So, the correct answer is (A): bolster his argument that people are basically decent, but progress as we know it can make them selfish.
None of the following views is expressed in the passage EXCEPT that:
- Hobbes and Rousseau disagreed on the fundamental nature of humans, but both believed in the need for a strong state.
- Bregman agrees with Hobbes that firm leadership is needed to ensure property rights and regulate strife.
- the author of the review believes in the veneer theory of human nature.
- most people agree with Hobbes’ pessimistic view of human nature as being intrinsically untrustworthy and selfish.
The Correct Option is D
Solution and Explanation
Option A: The author characterizes the perspectives of Hobbes and Rousseau as diametrically opposed ("Hobbes and Rousseau are seen as the two poles of the human nature argument") and does not present a similarity, especially any comment suggesting "both believed in the need for a strong state." Hence, we can discard this option.
Option B: No such viewpoint is presented in the passage.
Option C: The author's assessment of Frans de Waal's "veneer theory" is not explicitly highlighted. Therefore, we can eliminate this option.
Option D: The opening lines of the passage help us infer this viewpoint: "....Although one of the most contested concepts in political philosophy, human nature is something on which most people seem to agree. By and large, according to Rutger Bregman in his new book Humankind, we have a rather pessimistic view - not of ourselves exactly, but of everyone else. We see other people as selfish, untrustworthy and dangerous and therefore we behave towards them with defensiveness and suspicion..."
So, the correct answer is (D): most people agree with Hobbes’ pessimistic view of human nature as being intrinsically untrustworthy and selfish.
According to the passage, the “collapse of civilisations” is viewed by Bregman as:
- a temporary phase which can be rectified by social action.
- a time that enables changes in societies and cultures.
- a sign of regression in society’s trajectory.
- resulting from a breakdown in the veneer of human nature.
The Correct Option is B
Solution and Explanation
Bregman regards the aftermath of a collapse of civilization as a time that permits specific changes or modifications within society {..."Civilisation has become synonymous with peace and progress and wilderness with war and decline," writes Bregman. "In reality, for most of human existence, it was the other way around." Whereas traditional history depicts the collapse of civilisations as "dark ages" in which everything gets worse, modern scholars, he claims, see them more as a reprieve, in which the enslaved gain their freedom and culture flourishes... }.
Option B correctly captures this point. Options A, C and D are either not stated or distorted interpretations.
The correct answer is (B): a time that enables changes in societies and cultures.
The author has differing views from Bregman regarding:
- the role of pathogens in the spread of infectious diseases.
- a property-less mode of living being socially harmonious.
- the role of agriculture in the advancement of knowledge.
- a civilised society being coercive and unjust.
The Correct Option is D
Solution and Explanation
At the conclusion of the passage, the author expresses the following sentiment: {... There's a great deal of reassuring human decency to be taken from this bold and thought-provoking book and a wealth of evidence in support of the contention that the sense of who we are as a species has been deleteriously distorted. But it seems equally misleading to offer the false choice of Rousseau and Hobbes when, clearly, humanity encompasses both...}. Therefore, the author does not fully endorse Bregman's depiction of civilized society. Option D accurately reflects this dissent.
The correct answer is (D): a civilised society being coercive and unjust.
Top Questions on Reading Comprehension
Passage: Toru Dutt is considered the earliest Indian female writer in English. She travelled extensively in Europe from a young age with her family. She and her sister Aru became fascinated with Paris and French literature. In London, they came in contact with such august personages such as Sir Bartle Frere, the Gover- nor of Bombay from 1862 to 1867, and Sir Edward Ryan, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, Calcutta, from 1837 to 1843. Toru Dutt was greatly influenced in her writings by French Romantic poets like Victor Hugo and English writers like Elizabeth Browning, John Keats, Charlotte Bronte and Jane Austen. She was also intrigued by the legends and myths of India, and even learned Sanskrit. Her writings were marked by romantic melancholia and an obsession and preoccupation with death. This was partly due to her suffering and pain following the early tragic deaths of her siblings, especially her older sister Aru, with whom she was quite close. Her chosen subjects often portrayed separation, loneliness, captivity, dejec- tion, declining seasons and untimely death. She led an ”Ivory Tower existence” and her own death came quite early, at the age of 21, in the full bloom of her talent and on the eve of the awakening of her genius. Toru Dutt’s most famous work is A Sheaf Gleaned in French Fields, an anthology of poems translated from French to English. It also contained a few original poems that showcase her vast insight into French literature. She used to publish poems in the Bengal Magazine, under the pseudonym ”TD”. But most of her powerful work was published posthumously, in- cluding the French novel Le Journal de Mademoiselle D’Arvers and the unfinished English novel Bianca, or, the Young Spanish Maiden. Her work Ancient Ballads and Legends of Hindustan depicts a shrewd knowledge of Hindu mythology and an instinctive empathy with the conditions of life they represent. An assimilation of the Occident and the Orient nourished Toru’s poetic skills; in her, we find a tripartite influence of a French education, lectures at Cambridge and the study of Sanskrit literature.
- NPAT - 2025
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- Reading Comprehension
“Why do they pull down and do away with crooked streets, I wonder, which are my delight, and hurt no man living? Every day the wealthier nations are pulling down one or another in their capitals and their great towns: they do not know why they do it; neither do I. It ought to be enough, surely, to drive the great broad ways which commerce needs and which are the life-channels of a modern city, without destroying all history and all the humanity in between: the islands of the past.”
(From Hilaire Belloc’s “The Crooked Streets”)
Based only on the information provided in the above passage, which one of the following statements is true?- GATE PH - 2025
- General Aptitude
- Reading Comprehension
“Why do they pull down and do away with crooked streets, I wonder, which are my delight, and hurt no man living? Every day the wealthier nations are pulling down one or another in their capitals and their great towns: they do not know why they do it; neither do I. It ought to be enough, surely, to drive the great broad ways which commerce needs and which are the life-channels of a modern city, without destroying all history and all the humanity in between: the islands of the past.” (From Hilaire Belloc’s “The Crooked Streets”)
Based only on the information provided in the above passage, which one of the following statements is true?
- GATE CE - 2025
- General Aptitude
- Reading Comprehension
- “His life was divided between the books, his friends, and long walks. A solitary man, he worked at all hours without much method, and probably courted his fatal illness in this way. To his own name there is not much to show; but such was his liberality that he was continually helping others, and fruits of his erudition are widely scattered, and have gone to increase many a comparative stranger’s reputation.”
(From E.V. Lucas’s “A Funeral”)
Based only on the information provided in the above passage, which one of the following statements is true?- GATE CE - 2025
- General Aptitude
- Reading Comprehension
- Read the excerpt from a Handicrafts Manual: ‘Advanced Knitting Techniques’ and answer the following questions by choosing the most appropriate answer.
THE FAIR ISLE METHOD: Fair Isle knitting is a traditional technique that involves using two or more colours of yarn in a single row to create intricate patterns and designs. This method requires careful tension management to ensure even stitches and prevent puckering. To begin, select your colours and cast on the desired number of stitches. As you knit, alternate between colours every few stitches, carrying the unused yarn along the back of the work. Mastering the Fair Isle technique allows you to create stunning visual effects in garments, accessories, and home textiles.
THE CONTINENTAL STYLE: The Continental knitting style, often referred to as “picking,” involves holding the yarn in the left hand while the right hand manipulates the needles. This method allows for greater speed and efficiency, particularly when working with complex patterns or multiple colours. To practice this style, start by casting on your stitches and using your left hand to tension the yarn. With each stitch, simply “pick” the yarn with your right needle, forming a quick and fluid motion. As you become comfortable with this technique, you may find that your overall knitting speed and comfort improve significantly.
THE SHORT-ROW TECHNIQUE: Short-row knitting is an advanced technique that allows for the creation of shaped garments, such as sleeves and shoulders, without the need for complex shaping. To make a sleeve using this technique, begin by casting on the required number of stitches. Work a portion of the row, then turn your work and return without completing the full row to create the “short rows” that shape the curves of the sleeve. To prevent holes at the turn, wrap the stitch before you turn your work. Repeat this process as needed to achieve the desired shaping and dimension of the sleeve. Once you have shaped the sleeve, you can then sew the side seams to connect the pieces of your garment and finally, complete the edges to ensure a clean finish. This method not only helps shape curves but also adds dimension to your piece, allowing you to enhance fit and style.- AILET BALLB (Hons.) - 2025
- English
- Reading Comprehension
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