Galvanometer:
A galvanometer is an instrument used to show the direction and strength of the current passing through it. In a galvanometer, a coil placed in a magnetic field experiences a torque and hence gets deflected when a current passes through it.
The name "galvanometer" is derived from the surname of Italian scientist Luigi Galvani, who in 1791 discovered that electric current makes a dead frog’s leg jerk.
A spring attached to the coil provides a counter torque. In equilibrium, the deflecting torque is balanced by the restoring torque of the spring, and we have the relation:
\[ NBAI = k\phi \]
Where:
As the current \( I_g \) that produces full-scale deflection in the galvanometer is very small, the galvanometer alone cannot be used to measure current in electric circuits.
To convert a galvanometer into an ammeter (to measure larger currents), a small resistance called a shunt is connected in parallel to the galvanometer.
To convert it into a voltmeter (to measure potential difference), a high resistance is connected in series with the galvanometer.
Einstein's Explanation of the Photoelectric Effect:
Einstein explained the photoelectric effect on the basis of Planck’s quantum theory, where light travels in the form of small bundles of energy called photons.
The energy of each photon is hν, where:
The number of photons in a beam of light determines the intensity of the incident light.When a photon strikes a metal surface, it transfers its total energy hν to a free electron in the metal.A part of this energy is used to eject the electron from the metal, and this required energy is called the work function.The remaining energy is carried by the ejected electron as its kinetic energy.