There is an essential and irreducible ‘duality’ in the normative conceptualization of an individ ual person. We can see the person in terms of his or her ‘agency’, recognizing and respecting his or her ability to form goals, commitments, values, etc., and we can also see the person in terms of his or her ‘well-being’. This dichotomy is lost in a model of exclusively self-interested motivation, in which a person’s agency must be entirely geared to his or her own well-being. But once that straitjacket of self-interested motivation is removed, it becomes possible to rec ognize the indisputable fact that the person’s agency can well be geared to considerations not covered- or at least not fully covered- by his or her own well-being. Agency may be seen as important (not just instrumentally for the pursuit of well-being, but also intrinsically), but that still leaves open the question as to how that agency is to be evaluated and appraised.
Even though the use of one’s agency is a matter for oneself to judge, the need for careful assess ment of aims, objective, allegiances, etc., and the conception of the good, may be important and exacting. To recognize the distinction between the ‘agency aspect’ and the ‘well-being aspect’ of a person does not require us to take the view that the person’s success as an agent must be independent, or completely separable from, his or her success in terms of well-being. A person may well feel happier and better off as a result of achieving what he or she wanted to achieve- perhaps for his or her family, or community, or class, or party, or some other cause. Also it is quite possible that a person’s well-being will go down as a result of frustration if there is some failure to achieve what he or she wanted to achieve as an agent, even though those achievements are not directly concerned with his or her well-being.
There is really no sound basis for demanding that the agency aspect and the well-being aspect of a person should be independent of each other, and it is, I suppose, even possible that every change in one will affect the other as well. However, the point at issue is not the plausibility of their independence, but the sustainability and relevance of the distinction. The fact that two variables may be so related that one cannot change without the other, does not imply that they are the same variable, or that they will have the same values, or that the value of one can be obtained from the other on basis of some simple transformation. The importance of an agency achievement does not rest entirely on the enhancement of well-being that it may indirectly cause. The agency achievement and well-being achievement, both of which have some distinct importance, may be casually linked with each other, but this fact does not compromise the specific importance of either. In so far as utility-based welfare calculations concentrate only on the well-being of the person, ignoring the agency aspect, or actually fails to distinguish between the agency aspect and well-being aspect altogether, something of real importance is lost.
According to the ideas in the passage, the following are not true except:
Show Hint
When passages discuss “distinctions,” correct answers usually preserve the independence of concepts, while wrong ones overstate dependence/independence.
- The value of a person’s well-being cannot be obtained from the value of her agency.
- A person’s agency aspect is independent of her well-being aspect.
- A person’s agency is important because her well-being must depend on her agency.
- A person’s agency must be entirely geared towards her own well-being.
- A person’s well-being will be dependent on her agency in all circumstances.
The Correct Option is A
Solution and Explanation
Step 2: Option (A) aligns with this idea—it emphasizes that the value of well-being cannot be obtained merely from the value of agency.
Step 3: Options (B), (D), and (E) claim total independence or complete dependence, both of which are denied in the passage. Option (C) incorrectly assumes that agency’s importance is entirely due to well-being.
Step 4: Therefore, only (A) is consistent with the passage.
In the case of Japan, there is a strong empirical evidence to suggest that systematic departure from self-interested behavior, in the direction of duty, loyalty and goodwill have played a substantial part in industrial success. Which of the following is closest to the ideas presented in the passage?
Show Hint
Look for the answer that reflects the key philosophical point of the passage—in this case, agency functioning beyond self-interest.
- Japanese are duty bound selfless people.
- The sense of well-being of the Japanese people gets consistently enhanced due to this systematic departure from the self-interested behavior.
- Had there been no enhancement of their own well-being, the Japanese people would have not been dutiful.
- However the agency of the Japanese people in their industrial success is probably derived from factors beyond this sense of well-being.
- Japanese people’s adherence to ethos of duty, loyalty and goodwill can well be explained within the paradigm of self-interested behavior.
The Correct Option is D
Solution and Explanation
Step 2: Japanese people’s success was due to duty, loyalty, and goodwill—factors not reducible to mere self-interest or individual well-being.
Step 3: Option (D) captures this best, showing agency functioning independently of well-being.
Step 4: Options (A), (B), (C), and (E) misinterpret by oversimplifying into self-interest or well-being dependence.
Of the options presented below, which one is the best example for the ideas propounded in the passage?
Show Hint
In application questions, choose the example that shows the interplay of both agency (acting for causes) and well-being (personal/social benefit).
- ‘Change for Equality’ was a campaign by women of Iran to remove discrimination against women in their country. Activities of the movement were attacked and jailed by the government, but the campaign continued.
- In January 2011, the Egyptian people came out against the regime to topple it. Their grievances included police atrocities, state emergency laws, lack of free election, and lack of freedom of speech, corruption, unemployment, food price inflation and low minimum wages.
- A worker immolated himself to highlight injustice being perpetrated by the management against the employees in the company.
- The factory workers carried on with the strike in demand for increased wages, even though they were not paid wages for the duration they were on strike.
- A politician went on a hunger strike against corruption which not only galvanized the state government in enacting new laws, but also increased his image in the minds of the voters.
The Correct Option is
Solution and Explanation
Step 2: Option (E) reflects this duality—the politician’s agency (hunger strike) pursued a collective goal (anti-corruption laws) and also enhanced personal standing (well-being).
Step 3: Other options illustrate protests or actions but don’t combine the dual role of agency and well-being as clearly.
Step 4: Hence, option (E) best matches the passage’s philosophical framework.
Read the sentences given below and choose the option that is best in accordance with the ideas in the passage.
I. There is a need to distinguish between the agency aspect and the well-being aspect of a person.
II. A person can be conceptualized in terms of either agency or well-being.
III. A person is important, not just instrumentally, for the pursuit of well-being.
I. There is a need to distinguish between the agency aspect and the well-being aspect of a person.
II. A person can be conceptualized in terms of either agency or well-being.
III. A person is important, not just instrumentally, for the pursuit of well-being.
Show Hint
When given multiple statements, eliminate those that oversimplify or contradict the nuanced balance in the passage.
- I only
- II only
- III only
- I and III
- II and III
The Correct Option is D
Solution and Explanation
Step 2: It also highlights that agency has intrinsic importance, not just as an instrument for well-being, supporting statement III.
Step 3: Statement II is incorrect—the passage rejects the notion of choosing only one; both aspects must be recognized together.
Step 4: Hence, the correct choice is (D) I and III.
The idea of agency, as used in the passage, is implied in all the options given below, except:
Show Hint
Agency in philosophy means intentional action with goals—eliminate choices that describe passive, non-instrumental activities.
- A student arguing for a grade revision
- A lawyer arguing the case for his rich client
- A politician on dharma to gain publicity
- A hungry child crying for food
- An ascetic praying for world peace
The Correct Option is
Solution and Explanation
Step 2: Options (A), (B), (C), and (D) all involve deliberate goal-directed action tied to agency.
Step 3: Option (E) involves praying, which does not reflect agency in the passage’s sense—it is neither goal-directed in practical action nor evaluable in terms of agency vs well-being distinction.
Step 4: Therefore, (E) is the exception.
Top Questions on Reading Comprehension
- The advent of social media has dramatically transformed the way individuals consume and share information. In earlier times, people largely depended on newspapers, radio, or television as their primary sources of knowledge about the world. These were institutions that followed established editorial practices and fact-checking processes. With the rise of digital platforms, however, the traditional ‘gatekeepers’ of information have been bypassed. Today, anyone with internet access can create content, express an opinion, or broadcast an idea to a global audience within seconds.
This shift has certainly democratized access and given voice to communities and individuals who were often ignored by mainstream media. Yet, this democratization comes with challenges. Alongside genuine voices, social media has also amplified misinformation, rumours, and half-truths. Unlike traditional journalism, where accountability and verification are built into the system, social media thrives on speed, virality, and emotion. A misleading headline, a misinterpreted statistic, or even a doctored image can travel across the world before fact-checkers have the chance to intervene.
The consequences of such unchecked information can be serious, ranging from the spread of fear and panic to the manipulation of public opinion. The impact of this transformation extends beyond individual users to institutions and democracies. Political campaigns, corporate branding, and even social movements are now shaped by algorithms that decide what people see and when they see it. These algorithms prioritize engagement, often promoting content that provokes stronger emotional reactions rather than balanced analysis.
As a result, echo chambers form, online spaces where people are repeatedly exposed to opinions that mirror their own, reinforcing biases and reducing openness to differing perspectives. This has contributed to increasing polarization in societies across the world. Moreover, the competition for attention has blurred the line between information and entertainment, leading to the rise of sensationalism even in serious public discourse. The credibility of expertise too has been undermined, as opinions from unverified sources are often placed on the same footing as evidence-based knowledge.
In response, several governments and technology companies are exploring ways to promote digital literacy, enhance transparency in algorithms, and strengthen fact-checking collaborations. Ultimately, the challenge lies in balancing the openness of digital spaces with mechanisms that ensure responsibility and trustworthiness in public communication.- AILET BALLB (Hons.) - 2026
- English
- Reading Comprehension
- I have still to be brother to a Prince, though I once came near to kinship with what might have been a veritable King, and was promised the reversion of a Kingdom, army, law-courts, revenue, and policy, all complete. But, today, I greatly fear that my King is dead, and if I want a crown I must go and hunt it for myself. The beginning of everything was in a railway train upon the road to Mhow from Ajmir. There had been a deficit in the Budget, which necessitated travelling, not Second class, which is only half as dear as First class, but by Intermediate, which is very awful indeed. There are no cushions in the Intermediate class, and the population is either Intermediate, which is Eurasian, or native, which for a long night journey is nasty; or Loafer, which is amusing though intoxicated. Intermediates do not patronize refreshment rooms. They carry their food in bundles and pots, and buy sweets from the native sweet meat sellers, and drink the roadside water. That is why in the hot weather Intermediates are taken out of the carriages dead, and in all weathers are most properly looked down upon.
My particular Intermediate happened to be empty till I reached Nasirabad, when a huge gentleman in shirt sleeves entered, and following the custom of Intermediates, passed the time of day. He was a wanderer and a vagabond like myself, but with an educated taste for alcohol. He told daring tales of things he had seen and done, of out-of-the-way corners of the Empire into which he had penetrated, and of adventures in which he risked his life for a few days’ food. “If India was filled with men like you and me, not knowing more than the crows where they’d get their next day’s rations, it isn’t seventy millions of revenue the land would be paying, it’s seven hundred millions,” said he; and as I looked at his mouth and chin I was disposed to agree with him.
We talked politics, the politics of Loaferdom that sees things from the underside where the lath and plaster is not smoothed off, and we talked postal arrangements because my friend wanted to send a telegram back from the next station to Ajmir, which is the turning off place from the Bombay to the Mhow line as you travel westward. He had the air of one who had seen strange countries and stranger men, yet bore himself without vanity. There was a restless light in his eyes, the sort that belongs to men who have lived too long without a fixed purpose. When he spoke of the Empire, it was not with loyalty nor with bitterness, but with the detached amusement of one who has played his part and lost interest in the game. His laughter came easily, though it seemed to echo from some remembered hardship. It struck me then that his stories were less of adventure than of survival.- AILET BALLB (Hons.) - 2026
- English
- Reading Comprehension
Democracy, often hailed as the most equitable form of governance, is a system where power ultimately rests in the hands of the people. The word derives from the Greek words ”demos” meaning people and ”kratos” meaning power or rule. Democracy aims to provide equal political participation and protect the individual freedoms of all citizens. However, while the idea of democracy is simple, its practice is frequently complex and fraught with challenges. At its core, democracy functions on the principle of majority rule, yet it simultaneously guarantees the protection of minority rights.
This balance ensures that while the majority has the power to make decisions through voting, the fundamental rights of minorities are not trampled upon. Such a system requires consistent vigilance and respect for the rule of law. Without these, democracies can devolve into majoritarian tyranny or authoritarianism. The practice of democracy is not merely limited to voting in elections. It encompasses freedom of speech, an independent judiciary, free press, and protection of individual rights. These elements together create a political environment where citizens can express dissent, hold leaders accountable, and participate actively in decision-making. When any component is weakened, the democratic process becomes vulnerable.
In recent times, democratic societies worldwide have grappled with new challenges. The rise of misinformation and fake news has eroded public trust in institutions and polarized societies. Social media platforms, meant to facilitate communication, have sometimes amplified divisive narratives and falsehoods. This has resulted in voter manipulation and a growing skepticism toward democratic processes. Literacy in media and critical thinking is increasingly vital to safeguard democracy from such threats. Economic inequality poses another significant challenge. While democracy promises equal rights politically, vast disparities in wealth and opportunity undermine this ideal.
This phenomenon raises questions about whether democracy is achievable without addressing socioeconomic inequalities. Furthermore, the involvement of citizens is crucial. Democracy requires that people are informed, engaged, and willing to participate beyond casting votes. Civic education and awareness campaigns play an essential role in nurturing responsible citizenship. Apathy or disengagement weakens the democratic fabric, opening avenues for corruption and other dangers to the system. In conclusion, democracy thrives on the collective responsibility of governments and citizens to protect its pillars and ensure inclusive, fair governance.- AILET BALLB (Hons.) - 2026
- English
- Reading Comprehension
The Rule of Law
by Tom BinghamJustice: What’s the Right Thing to Do?
by Michael J. SandelLetters to a Law Student
by Nicholas J. McBrideIn The Rule of Law, former Lord Chief Justice Tom Bingham explores how the principle of legality underpins modern democratic life. He defines the rule of law as more than just adherence to formal rules; it is the assurance that power is exercised within clear, fair, and publicly known boundaries.
Bingham distills the concept into eight principles, including equality before the law, access to justice, and respect for fundamental human rights. Drawing on cases and historical examples, he warns that national security and administrative efficiency must never override the rights of individuals.
The book bridges legal philosophy and practice, arguing that law must be both predictable and humane. For Bingham, the rule of law represents a moral ideal, one that sustains public trust in justice and curbs arbitrary governance.Michael Sandel’s Justice: What’s the Right Thing to Do? examines moral reasoning in law and politics. Through examples like price gouging, affirmative action, and taxation, Sandel invites readers to explore competing notions of fairness.
He engages with philosophical traditions such as utilitarianism, libertarianism, and Rawlsian egalitarianism, showing that questions of justice cannot be separated from questions of virtue and the common good.
Sandel rejects the idea of a morally “neutral” legal system, arguing that public deliberation about values is essential to democracy. Ultimately, he argues that a just society is one that cultivates civic responsibility, not merely individual rights.Nicholas McBride’s Letters to a Law Student is a practical and reflective guide for aspiring lawyers. Written as a series of letters to a student beginning law school, it explores what legal study truly involves.
This includes mastering case analysis, understanding precedents, and developing critical reasoning. McBride distinguishes between knowing the law and thinking like a lawyer, the latter requiring analytical discipline and ethical awareness.
He emphasizes that good lawyers combine intellectual rigor with moral judgment and clarity of expression. Beyond academic success, the book urges students to reflect on law’s purpose, balancing order, justice, and compassion in human affairs.- AILET BALLB (Hons.) - 2026
- English
- Reading Comprehension
Urban gardening has become increasingly popular as a means to address food security, sustainability, and mental well-being in cities. By growing their own fruits, vegetables, and herbs, individuals can reduce their reliance on commercial supply chains that contribute to extensive transportation, energy consumption, and synthetic chemical use. In addition to providing fresh, nutritious food, urban gardening also contributes to environmental sustainability by mitigating urban heat island effects, improving air quality, and managing water runoff. Furthermore, it offers psychological benefits, including reduced stress, improved mood, and a sense of accomplishment. Despite its many benefits, urban gardening faces challenges like space limitations, poor soil quality, and inadequate sunlight, which gardeners overcome using innovative techniques such as vertical farming and hydroponics.
- AILET BALLB (Hons.) - 2026
- English
- Reading Comprehension
Questions Asked in XAT exam
- Arun selected an integer \( x \) between 2 and 40, both inclusive. He noticed that the greatest common divisor of the selected integer \( x \) and any other integer between 2 and 40, both inclusive, is 1. How many different choices for such an \( x \) are possible?
- XAT - 2025
- Number Systems
- ABCD is a rectangle where points C and D have coordinates (−2, 0) and (2, 0), respectively. If the area of the rectangle is 24, what is the best way to describe the equation of the line AB?
- XAT - 2025
- Geometry
- Adu and Amu have bought two pieces of land on the Moon from an e-store. Both the pieces of land have the same perimeters, but Adu’s piece of land is in the shape of a square, while Amu’s piece of land is in the shape of a circle. The ratio of the areas of Adu’s piece of land to Amu’s piece of land is:
- XAT - 2025
- Mensuration
- A and B bought lands on the Moon from an eStore, both with the same diameter but A’s land is square-shaped, and B’s land is circular. What is the ratio of the areas of their respective lands?
- XAT - 2025
- Ratio and Proportion
- A bought a phone from a store and paid \(\frac{1}{6}\) of the price using UPI, \(\frac{1}{3}\) of the price in cash, and the remaining balance a year later. He also paid 10% interest on the remaining balance after one year. What was the original price of the phone?
- XAT - 2025
- Percentage